of the Treaty of Peace. The Court also gave advisory opinions concerning six other questions, including several of great international importance.

In the League's administrative tasks also a great deal was accomplished during 1923. In the first six months of the year many grave questions arose concerning Danzig, and there was ground to fear that the Polish Government intended to bring about the settlement of them all by the virtual absorption of Danzig into the Polish State. This danger was averted, and all the outstanding questions settled by vigorous action taken by the Council in July. Since then the relations of Danzig and Poland have continually improved.

In connexion with the Saar Valley there was a crisis of considerable gravity during the early part of the year. It culminated in the holding of a special inquiry, by the Council at its July meeting, in the course of which it examined all outstanding questions with the members of the Governing Commission. The report of this inquiry which was published in full in the Council Minutes, provided a solution which gave general satisfaction both to British opinion, to the inhabitants of the Saar, and even to some extent to German opinion. The relations between the Governing Commission and the population are still unsatisfactory, owing to the predominance of French influence on the Commission. But it is expected that the Council will make changes in the personnel of the Commission which will lead to improvements.

The Permanent Mandates Commission held its Third Annual Meeting, which lasted no less than six weeks. During this time it examined reports of all the Mandatory Powers on "B" and "C" Mandated areas, i.e., those situated in Africa and the Pacific Islands, and in particular devoted great attention to the question of the so-called Bondelswart Rebellion in South-West Africa [see under South Africa]. It also proposed a modification of the frontier between the Belgian and British Mandated areas in Tanganyika, in the interests of the native tribes. This modification the Governments readily accepted and they have already brought it into force.

In connexion with the Protection of Minorities, Greece and Bulgaria, owing to the intervention of the Assembly, reached an agreement under which their joint Exchange of Populations Commission is to supervise the rights of the minorities in their respective countries. Austria and Czechoslovakia agreed to establish a joint ad hoc Commission for the same purpose. Outstanding questions between the Council and the Baltic States were finally liquidated. On the other hand, two very grave infractions of the rights of minorities were committed by the Polish Government. These questions were referred by the Council-after much too great delay-to the Permanent Court of International Justice for an advisory opinion. The Court ruled that the action taken by the Polish Government was a

violation of its international obligations. The Council is still in negotiation with the Polish Government as to the practical means by which the wrongs it has committed can be set right. The question, however, is now a most difficult one and ought never to have arisen if the Council had not wasted so much time before referring the matter to the Court. The opinions of the Court are nevertheless of great importance as a precedent, and should do much to strengthen the system of minority protection which is one of the foundations of the New Europe.

Of the technical Committees of the League, the Opium Committee prepared a comprehensive programme for restricting the production of dangerous drugs, and the Council summoned the necessary Conference for next year; the White Slave Traffic Committee instituted an important inquiry financed by the American Bureau of Social Hygiene; the Health Committee developed the practical work of co-operation between national health administrations which it had begun; the Economic Committee produced treaties on Customs Formalities and Commercial Arbitration, which received a warm welcome from business communities; and the Transit Committee and the Second General Transit Conference held in November, produced four important international conventions, and took a good deal of administrative action in the interests of the community of States.

CHAPTER II.

IRELAND.

NORTHERN IRELAND.

ORDER had been firmly established in Northern Ireland before the end of 1922, and during last year the peace of the area remained unbroken. Nationalist and Sinn Fein members still refused to take their seats in the Northern Parliament, and in theory the Catholic minority withheld recognition from Sir James Craig's Government. In practice, however, legal obligations were not repudiated. Nationalists who had been elected to local governing bodies, though protesting against the enforcement of an oath of allegiance, discharged their duties, and if a formidable gulf still divides the rival parties there are indications of an approach to a better understanding.

With the problem of maintaining order reduced to normal proportions, Ministers were free to turn their attention to constructive legislative measures with which hitherto it had not been possible to deal. The most memorable achievement of the year was the passing into law of the Education Bill, which was introduced on March 14 by the Marquis of Londonderry, Minister of Education. This Bill, based in the main on the

recommendations of the Lynn Committee, marked a new departure in Irish educational administration by establishing the principle of popular control. It provided for the creation of local Education Authorities to be formed by the county borough councils and county councils with power to appoint Regional Committees. Local Authorities were empowered to strike a rate to meet the cost of new schools and the maintenance of existing schools, but the salaries of teachers remained a State charge. In Parliament, though the measure gave rise to keen discussion, the Government had little difficulty in carrying the Bill through both Houses without substantial alteration. It was from the outside that the strongest opposition came. A fortnight after the introduction of the Bill the Catholic Bishops of Northern Ireland declared in a manifesto that "the proposed schools are impossible for our children." There was also hostility on the part of the Presbyterian and Church of Ireland authorities who demanded that the appointment of teachers in transferred schools should be delegated to representatives of the parents and managers or trustees acting with nominees of the Education Authority. Negotiations are still in progress with the Protestant Churches, but meanwhile the main clauses of the Act came into operation on October 1.

Equally vigorous was the controversy aroused by the Intoxicating Liquor Bill which was introduced on May 11 by the Prime Minister. Its provisions for the abolition of spirit grocers' licenses with compensation to the holders, the enforcement of heavier penalties for illicit distillation, the prohibition of the sale of liquor to persons under eighteen, and the transfer of licensing cases from a bench of justices to the Resident Magistrates were generally approved. Far otherwise was it with the withdrawal of the concessions hitherto enjoyed by bona-fide travellers and the decision to enforce the total closing of publichouses on Sundays which provoked loud protests from a large section of the working-class. While the Bill was still under discussion an election took place in West Belfast at which an Independent, Colonel P. J. Woods, a strong critic of the measure, carried the seat against the official Unionist, Sir Joseph Davison, with a majority of nearly 8,000. Another important piece of legislation passed during the year was the Trades Board Bill which affected eighteen trades comprising some 6,000 firms and between 65,000 and 70,000 workers. A new departure was made in that under the Bill wage rates were fixed for the least skilled workers in each trade and other grades were left free to arrange rates by negotiation..

The return of income and expenditure for the first complete year of the Northern Government issued on March 30, showed a balance of revenue over expenditure of 32,0427. after providing for sinking fund charges of 63,7351. and the payment to the Imperial Exchequer of the statutory contribution of 6,000,0001. It was decided that members of the Northern Parliament who

had taken the oath of allegiance should be paid 2001. a year as expenses."

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The fiscal separation between the Free State and Great Britain which took effect on April 1 led to complications in Northern Ireland which remains inside the British Customs area. Though up to the present there has been no differentiation of fiscal policy, by the division of what had been a single fiscal unit Saorstat Eireann and Great Britain are at present imposing protective tariffs against certain goods manufactured by the other. Accurate statistics are not yet available, but it is known that these charges have diminished the volume of commerce between North and South, and have dealt a crushing blow to the retail trade in dutiable goods across the land frontier, causing much inconvenience and economic loss to border towns on both sides.

The Boundary question still remains a bone of contention between the Northern and Southern Governments. At the opening of Parliament on February 27, Sir James Craig said a system had now been devised whereby the frontier had been made safe and secure, and the British Government had pledged itself to place at the disposal of the Northern Government any troops that might be necessary for the defence of the border. In July the Free State Government announced that they had nominated Mr. Eoin MacNeill as their representative on the Boundary Commission provided for in the Anglo-Irish Treaty to "determine in accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants, so far as shall be compatible with economic and geographic conditions, the boundaries between Northern Ireland and the West of Ireland." In a statement dealing with the nomination of Mr. Eoin MacNeill, the Northern Prime Minister refused to appoint a representative on the ground that "neither I nor any member of the Government of Northern Ireland was any party to the agreement entered into by the representatives of Southern Ireland and the British Government, and therefore we are exonerated from any breach of faith." "We shall carry on," Sir James Craig added, "as we have done in the past, and no territory within the Northern area will be surrendered unless by mutual agreement, and with the consent of those in the locality concerned." In the hope of finding a way out of this impasse, Mr. Baldwin early in November invited the heads of the Free State and the Northern Government to attend a Conference to be held in London for the purpose of discussing the question of the Boundary. Mr. Cosgrave accepted without prejudice to his claims under the Treaty, and Sir James Craig also expressed his willingness to enter into conversations which did not bind him to alter his attitude towards the Boundary Commission. The upheaval created by the unexpected dissolution of the British Parliament prevented the meeting of the London Conference, and for the time being the proposal remains in abeyance.

Under the Act of 1920 Northern Ireland sends thirteen members to the Imperial Parliament, and nine of these were returned in the December elections without opposition in support of Mr. Baldwin's policy. In North and West Belfast the official Unionist candidates had to face contested elections. Mr. T. E. McConnell won in North Belfast by a majority of 1,600 over Mr. Thomas Henderson, an Independent Unionist; in the West Division Mr. R. J. Lynn defeated Mr. Midgley (Lab.) by 2,720. Partition was the sole issue in the joint-constituency of Tyrone and Fermanagh, where, as was generally expected, the Nationalist and Sinn Fein candidates succeeded in retaining their seats with safe majorities. The returns were T. J. S. Harbinson (Nat.) 44,003; Cahir Healy (S.F.) 43,668; J. A. Pringle (U.) 37,733; Sir Charles Fall (U.) 37,682.

Amongst the notable events of the year was the State entry of the Governor, the Duke of Abercorn, into Belfast on February 26, when the Lord Mayor presented a gold key, and loyal addresses were received from a large number of public Boards and religious and social organisations. On the following day his Grace opened the new Session of Parliament, and in May a State visit was also paid to Derry.

Lord Carson of Duncairn performed in October the ceremony of cutting the sod of the new Silent Valley reservoir in the Mourne Mountains which the Belfast Water Commissioners are constructing at a cost of 1,000,000l. During his visit Lord Carson was presented with an address and a solid silver casket to commemorate his political services during the period he acted as leader of the Ulster Unionists.

An experimental air mail service was opened between Belfast and Plymouth. The first flight was made on September 15 when the machine leaving Plymouth at 10 A.M. reached Belfast at 4.20 P.M. after calls at Birmingham and Manchester.

In

During the year there was a slight improvement in linen and shipbuilding, the staple industries of the Northern area. spite of the chaotic condition of the exchanges and the pressure of foreign competition, linen exports show an increase of from five to six million square yards of fabrics in piece goods alone, and an increase in the total value of linen manufactures of all kinds estimated at some 250,000l. Messrs. Harland & Wolff's shipbuilding output amounted to 86,714 tons, the highest figure for a single yard in the Three Kingdoms. The total tonnage launched from the Belfast yards was 127,433 tons as against 86,943 for the previous year.

THE IRISH FREE STATE.

THE situation which confronted the Free State Government in the opening weeks of 1923 was such as to give rise to grave alarm. General Mulcahy's forces had asserted their supremacy in the field, and military operations by their opponents were