We see from the nature of these adjurations, why the Niphal form of the verb is used, viz. p, to swear, properly to be

sworn.

As the oath was an appeal to God, (Lev. xix. 12; Deut. vi. 13,) the taking of a false oath was deemed a heinous crime, and, accordingly, was forbidden in those words, Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain, i. e. shalt not call God to witness in pretended confirmation of a falsehood, Exod. xx. 7.

It was a common thing in Egypt, in the time of Joseph, to swear by the life of the king, Gen. xlii. 15; and this practice prevailed subsequently among the Hebrews, 1 Sam. xxv. 26; 2 Sam. xi. 11; xiv. 19; comp. Ps. lxiii. 11.

The Hebrews also swore by cities and consecrated places, such as Hebron, Shilo, and Jerusalem. A person sometimes swore by himself, and sometimes by the life of the person before whom he spoke, viz. " by myself, by thee or by thy life, 1 Sam.

i. 26; 2 Kings, ii. 2; Gen. xliii. 20; xliv. 18; Exod. iv. 10, 13; Numb. xii. 11; Joshua, vii. 8; Judges, vi. 13, 15; 1 Kings, iii. 17, 26.

In some instances persons adjured others by the beasts of the field, (Canticles, ii. 7,) a sort of adjuration which to the present day makes its appearance in the writings of the Arabian poets. Consult the Koran, Sura, lxxxv. 1-3; lxxxvi. 1, 11-13; lxxxix. 1—4; ix. 1—4; xci. 1—8, etc.

The Jews in the time of Christ were in the habit of swearing by the altar, by Jerusalem, by heaven, by the earth, by themselves, by their heads, by the gold of the temple, by sacrifices, etc. Because the name of God was not mentioned in these oaths, they considered them as imposing but small, if any obligation, Martialis Epigramat. xi. 95. And we accordingly find that the Saviour takes occasion to inveigh in decided terms against such arts of deception, Matt. v. 33—37; xxiii. 16-22. It is against oaths of this kind, and these alone, (not against an oath uttered in sincerity,) that he expresses his displeasure, and prohibits their use. This is clear since he himself consented to take upon him the solemnity of an oath, Matt. xxvi. 63, 64; and since Paul himself in more than one instance utters an adjuration. Compare Rom. ix. 1; 2 Cor. i. 23.

In the primitive periods of their history the Hebrews religiously observed an oath, (Joshua, ix. 14, 15,) but we find that in later

times they were often accused by the prophets of perjury. After the Captivity the Jews became again distinguished for the scrupulous observance of what they had sworn to; but corruption soon increased among them: they revived the old forms, the words without the meaning; and became known as perjurers amongst all nations.

§. 392. Or Vows, 77, 7.

Vows which were not of divine appointment, but originated with men themselves, were solemn promises made by persons to consecrate something to God, or to do something in his service and to his honour, which, without such promises, they did not feel themselves bound to perform. The design of these vows was in some cases to express the gratitude of those who made them to God; in others, to obtain favour and mercy from Him.

The earliest vow of which we have any account in the Scriptures is that of Jacob, mentioned in Genesis, xxviii. 22; and since it was observed by his posterity it much tended to preserve the true knowledge of God. Other vows cherished and increased pious feelings.

Moses, for religious purposes, confirmed the vows which had been made in ancient times; and which, having been observed in subsequent ages, had acquired, in some measure, prescriptive authority. But the making of new vows by individuals he does not appear to have encouraged, although he insisted on a scrupulous fulfilment of them when made, Deut. xxiii. 21-24. It should be observed, however, that he permitted, in certain cases, the redemption of a vow, (Lev. xxvii. 1-25,) and conferred the power on the father and the husband of annulling the vows of a daughter, or a wife, Numb. xxx. 2-16.

Vows were uttered audibly, and as appears from Numb. xxx. 3, 11, 14, were confirmed by an oath. Compare Deut. xxiii. 23; Judges, xi. 35, 36; Psalms, lxvi. 14.

Vows were either (1) affirmative, DT, strictly so called, by which property of various kinds, and men themselves, might be consecrated to God, and which were capable of redemption, (with the exception of what was devoted by the vow, called in Hebrew

, and of animals proper for sacrifices;) or (2) negative, by which abstinence was promised from certain things in themselves

lawful, and which were denominated by, a restraint on the appetite. The principal among this last class of vows was that of the Nazarites.

§. 393. OF AFFIRMATIVE Vows.

By vows of this kind not only property of various descriptions, as money, lands, houses, and animals clean and unclean; but servants also, sons, and the person himself who made the vow, might be consecrated to God. These are all mentioned under a name common to any sacred gift, viz. 1, Josephus, Antiquities, iv. 4, 4; Mark, vii. 11.

Animals which were fit for sacrifices, and which were devoted to God by this vow, were to be sacrificed; but those which were excluded from the altar were to be sold according to the valuation of a priest; they could be redeemed, however, by the additional payment of a fifth part of the valuation. The men who were thus devoted became servants in the tabernacle or temple, unless they were redeemed.

Money, lands, and houses, which had been made the subjects of this vow, became the property of the tabernacle or the temple; but the lands might be redeemed before the year of Jubilee, Lev. xxvii. 1-24.

Of the vow called Cherem.

The vow called, i. e. the accursed thing, was not originally introduced by Moses, but was an ancient custom which he thought proper to retain, in order that he might not deprive himself of the good which might arise from giving an example of formidable severity, Exod. xvii. 14; Numb. xxi. 2; Deut. ii. 32, 34; iii. 1-8; xiii. 14, 15; comp. Judg. xx. 47, 48. If the vow of Cherem were uttered in respect to an enemy it implied the widest destruction; and it was sacrilege for the conquering army to appropriate to itself any of the plunder, Josh. vi. 17-19; vii. 1, 26. In a few instances it appears that the flocks and some other of the spoils were not destroyed, Deut. ii. 32, 34; iii. 1-8; Josh. viii. 2. By the vow of Cherem, otherwise called the irrevocable curse, sometimes fields, animals, and individuals of the human species were devoted. It was designed, in its operation upon men, to bear only upon the wicked, who were thereby made

an example to others. Compare 1 Sam. xiv. 24, et seq. Jephtha, therefore, in slaying his daughter in conformity with his rash vow, violated at least the spirit of the Mosaic laws, Judges, xi. 30-39.

§. 394. OF NEGATIVE Vows, the Nazarite, etc.

A negative vow, as has already been stated, was a promise to abstain from certain things admissible by law. Josephus says (Jewish War, ii. 15. 1.) that in his day there were many, particularly those who had been oppressed by sickness or by adverse fortune, who vowed to abstain from wine, to go with the head shaven, and to spend the time in prayer for thirty days previously to their offering sacrifices. Compare Acts, xviii. 18.

But the Nazarite, on the contrary, vowed to let the hair grow, to abstain not only from wine and all inebriating drink, but from vinegar likewise; to eat no grapes, and to beware of any contamination from corpses, bones, and sepulchres. In some instances the parents bound the child by the vow of a Nazarite, even before its birth. This was the case in respect to Samson and John the Baptist, Judges, xiii. 2—5, 12—23; Luke, i. 13— 15. This vow sometimes continued through life; but was generally limited in its operation to a definite period. The customs relative to the Nazarite prevailed before the days of Moses, who in Lev. xxv. 25, borrowed expressions from them before the publication of his law on the subject in Numb. vi.

If the Nazarite, whether male or female, (,,) for the vow might be made by either, was unexpectedly contaminated, he was to be purified; not only in the manner already mentioned, but was required to shave off his hair; to offer, on the seventh day two turtle-doves or two young pigeons, the one for a sin, the other for a burnt-offering; also a lamb of a year old for a trespass-offering, and to commence anew his Nazariteship, Numb. vi. 9-12.

When the time specified in the vow was completed, he offered a ram of a year old for a burnt-offering, a sheep of the same age for a sin-offering, a ram for a thank-offering, a basket of unleavened cakes, some of which were kneaded with oil, and some covered with oil; also a libation of wine. His hair was shaven off before the gate of the sanctuary and cast into the fire, where

the thank-offering was burning. He offered, as a wave-offering to God, the shoulders of the thank-offering, and two cakes, one of each kind, which were both given to the priest.

He at length indulged himself once more in drinking wine at the feast, which was prepared from the thank-offering. As, in some instances, the Nazarites had not sufficient property to enable them to meet the whole expense of the offerings, other persons who possessed more became sharers in it, and in this way were made parties to the vow, Bereshith Rabba 90. Koheleth Rabba 7. Acts, xxi. 23, 24.

§. 395. OF PRAYERS.

It

Prayers, in the childhood of the human race, were nothing more than the mere unspoken emotions, which were naturally inspired by reverence towards God, by fear, or by gratitude. was not till a subsequent period that they were embodied in language, and that supplications were added to the exercise of these simple emotions, Gen. xii. 8; xxi. 33; xxiv. 26, 48; xxvi. 25; xxxii. 9—12.

Moses left the subject of prayer to the feelings of every individual; and made no arrangements with regard to it, further than to prescribe the benediction to be pronounced by the priest, Numb. vi. 24, 25; and a formulary, according to which the Hebrews, in their presentation of the first-fruits, were to return thanks to God for the possession of the land of Canaan, Deut. xxvi. 3-10, 13—15.

Our Lord's prayer, (Matt. vi. 9-13,) is a selection of the most devotional and appropriate sentiments from the Jewish formularies, extant in his time. Compare WETTSTENII Nov. Test. at Matt. vi. 9—13. t. i. p. 323–326. The pious Hebrews when they offered their sacrifices, returned thanks to God in the words given to them by Moses, and thereby kept alive in their bosoms the feelings of piety and devotion.

Hymns were sung on particular occasions, accompanied with sacred dances and instruments of music, Exod. xv; Judg. v. Nothing is said of any other public devotional exercises, which may be called prayers, except in the following passages, 1 Kings, viii. 14-21; Neh. viii. 6; Ps. lxxii. 20, and a few others,