ORIGIN OF MONASTIC INSTITUTIONS.

151

but later this name was applied to those houses in which the priests met, and where strangers and the ascetics (who went about collecting alms) found an asylum. The meaning of the word became more restricted still, and was subsequently given to monasteries only, or to those religious establishments, in which those who once enter them are bound to remain for life. It is impossible to determine exactly the various periods during which Viharas took the form of meeting-houses or, later, of monasteries. In the Hinayana books on discipline they are mentioned only as an appendix to the chapter on the seats, and they were probably erected later than the temples, the first of which is said to have been built in the period of Upagupta, who lived in the third century B.C. The violent attacks of the Brahmans must soon have convinced the Buddhist clergy of the advantages to be derived from association; rules were then drawn up for life in community and for subordination, and the beginning of monastic institutions was thus made, which latter were, however, in India, even in their final perfection, widely different from those of Tibetan monachism at the present day. In earlier times each Vihara had its own administration and its own chief, and was independent of the others; and it was so even in the seventh century, when Hiuen Thsang resided in India; a hierarchy so thoroughly organized as we now find in Tíbet, was never known in India.1

1 See Burnouf, "Introduction," pp. 232 seq., 279 seq., 286; Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," Chapter III., IV., XIII.; Wassiljew, "Der Buddhismus, pp. 45, 96. Compare also Barthelmy St. Hilaire, "Le Bouddha

Hierarchical system.

1

The first organisation of the Tibetan clergy dates from King Thisrong de tsan (728-86 A.D.), of whom the Bodhimör says that "he gave the clergy a firm constitution and divided it into classes." But the development of the present hierarchical system, which was independent of these ancient institutions, dates from the fifteenth century. In 1417 the famous Lama Tsonkhapa founded the Gáldan monastery at Lhássa, and became its superior; the great authority and reputation he had enjoyed, devolved upon his successors in the abbotship of this monastery, who, down to the present day, are believed to have been men of particular sanctity. But these abbots were soon superseded in influence by the Dalai Lama at Lhássa (now the highest in rank of the Tibetan priesthood), and by the Panchen Rinpoche at Tashilhúnpo, who are both considered to be of divine

3

et sa religion,” p. 299. Wilson, “Buddha and Buddhism,” p. 251. The principal cave temples were probably excavated in the period from the commencement of the Christian era to the fifth century after it. It needs hardly be added that the sacred books which represent Sākyamuni himself to have felt the necessity of instituting head priests are interpolated. 1 Schmidt, "Ssanang Ssetsen," p. 356; comp. p. 67.

2 Dalai Lama is the title which the Mongolians give to him; Dalai is a Mongolian word meaning ocean, Lama or correctly blama, is the Tibetan word for a superior. Schott, "Ueber den Buddhaismus in Hochasien,” p. 32. The Europeans became familiar with this term from the works of Georgi, Pallas and Klaproth.

3 Tashilhúnpo, or in exact transliteration: "bkhra shis hun po," is the neighbouring city of chiefly ecclesiastical establishments, about a mile to the south east of Digárchi, "the four-housed (top?)" (in Tibetan written bzhi-ka-rtse, in Nevari zhi-kha-chhen), the capital of the province Tsang, of Chinese Tíbet. See the map of Turner, "Embassy;" Hooker, "Himalayan Journals,” Vol. II., pp. 125, 171. Hodgson, "Aborigines of the Nilgiris." Journ. As, Soc. Beng., Vol. XXV., p. 504.

DALAI LAMA; PANCHEN RINPOCHE.

153

origin, and are, consequently, regarded more in the light of gods than of mortal beings. This assumed divine origin gives them a character totally different from that of the Pope of the Roman Catholic church; but then, on the other hand, neither of them has such a widely-spread acknowledged supremacy as that enjoyed by the Pope of Rome.

The Dalai Lama is viewed as an incarnation of the Dhyani Bodhisattva Chenresi, who is supposed to effect his re-incorporation by a beam of light which issues from his body and enters the individual whom he selects for his re-descent.' The Panchen Rinpoche is considered to be an incarnation of Chenresi's celestial father, Amitabha. There is a story relating that Tsonkhapa himself had ordered his two principal disciples to take upon themselves a mortal form in an uninterrupted series of rebirths, and to watch over the propagation of the Buddhist faith and the maintenance of its purity; and according to this account, it was Tsonkhapa who created these two principal clerical dignities. But we learn from Csoma's Chronological Tables, that Gedun Grub (born 1389 A.D. died 1473) was the first, who assumed the title of Gyelva Rinpoche, "His precious Majesty," which is applied to the Dalai Lama only; Gedun Grub is, therefore, to be considered the first Dalai Lama, and not the Dharma Rinchen, the successor of Tsonkhapa in the chair of the Gáldan monastery. In the year 1445 he

3

166 "Description du Tubet," Nouv. Journ. Asiatique 1830, p. 239. Comp. p. 88. 2 See about the dogma of Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, p. 51. 3 Arbeiten der russ. Mission in Peking," Vol. I., p. 316.

also built the large monastery of Tashilúnpo, whose abbots assumed the title of Panchen Rinpoche, "the great teacher-jewel," and who claimed with much success the same divine nature and temporal power as that till then enjoyed by the Dalai Lama alone. He shares an equal authority and sovereignty as the Dalai Lama, but in ecclesiastical affairs, even in his own territories, his words are considered less divine, his faculties inferior to those of the Dalai Lama.

The fifth Gyelva Rinpoche, Ngagvang Lobzang Gyamtso, a most ambitious man, sent to the Koshot Mongolians, who had settled in the environs of the lake Kuku Nor, and requested their assistance against the Tibetan king then residing at Digárchi, with whom he was at war. The Mongolians conquered Tíbet, and are said to have made a present of the same to Ngagvang Lobzang. This event took place in the year 1640, and it is from this moment that we must date the extension of the temporal government of the Dalai Lamas over all Tíbet.1

The Dalai Lamas are elected by the clergy, and up to the year 1792 these elections had taken place uninfluenced by the Chinese government; but since this time the court of Pekin, to whom the Dalai Lama is a very important personage in a political as well as a religious point of view, has taken care that the sons of such per

1 Csoma, "Grammar," pp. 192, 198. Ritter, "Asien," Vol. III., pp. 274-86. Köppen, "Die Rel. d. Buddha," Vol. II., pp. 129-52. Cunningham, "Ladak," p.389, has understood Csoma's account as if in the year 1640 the first Dalai Lama had been established, but Csoma decidedly only alludes to the uniting of the temporal government with his ecclesiastical sovereignity.

sons only as are known for their loyality and fidelity shall be elected to this high dignity.'

The next in rank to these sublime Lamas are the superiors of several larger monasteries, of whom some are considered as incarnations, others as common mortals; in either case head Lamas of so high a rank are styled

2

х

Khanpos. My brothers saw Khanpos at the monasteries (32 of Láma Yúru in Ladák, and at Thóling in Gnári Khórsum. They were natives of Lhássa, and had been appointed by the Dalai Lama's government for periods of from three to six years, at the expiration of which time they would return to Lhássa. The abbots in smaller monasteries are elected for life by the monks; but the election has to be submitted for approval to the Dalai Lama, who can either sanction or reject it.

Other persons superior in rank to the common monks are the Budzad, the superintendent of the choral songs and music during the divine service; and the Gebkoi, who has to maintain discipline and order. These dignitaries are also elected by the monks, and constitute, with the abbot, the council which regulates the affairs of the monastery. Some other dignities which are occasionally

Compare for details Huc, "Souvenirs," Vol. I., p. 292. Köppen, 1. c.,

p. 247.

* In Bhután the incarnated Khanpos had profited by political circumstances to make themselves independent of the Dalai Lama. The relations between the ruler of Bhután proper, the Dharma Rinpoche (called by the Hindus Dharma Rāja), and Lhássa seem to be very loose; and the abbots of the monasteries in the southern valleys have also set up principalities almost independent of the Dharma Rinpoche. These Lamas, styled Lama Rājas by Hermann's companions, are very jealous of their power, and endeavoured most energically to prevent Hermann from entering Bhután, by abducting his servants.