of confession; the dogma that it confers entire absolution from sins ("from the root, tsava nas") was established by the Mahāyāna schools.1

Up to the present day this is also the character of confession amongst the Tibetan Buddhists, who consider it of the greatest influence for a happy metempsychosis and the attainment of Nirvana. The confession (in Tibetan Sobyong) always includes an open repentence of the sins and the promise to commit no more. Also the solicitation of the gods is indispensable, but various are the modes which may accompany the avowal and the prayers addressed to the deities for abolishment of one's sins. As the most easy may be named the use of the water which has been consecrated by the Lamas in the divine ceremony Tuisol, "entreaties for ablution;' but also the abstinence from food and the tiresome reciting of prayers may be combined with it, a kind of confession which bears the name of Nyungne, "to continue abstinence." Such painful modes of getting rid of sins are, however, not greatly in favour, and the less as a simple address to the gods is considered to be almost equally efficacious.

The gods who have the faculty of delivering from sins, are for the greater part imaginary Buddhas

1 See Burnouf, "Introduction," p. 299. Csoma, "Analysis," As. Res., Vol. XX., p. 58. Wassiljew, "Der Buddhismus," pp. 92, 100, 291. Pratimoksha is a Manual containing the laws of the Buddhist priesthood. A translation by the Rev. Gogerly appeared in the "Ceylon Friend," 1839; an analysis is to be found in Csoma, 1. c., with whom compare Burnouf's "Introduction," p. 300. Hardy gives numerous extracts from its precepts.

2 'Khrus, "to be thoroughly washed;" gsol, "prayer, entreaty;" snung, "to reduce (in food);” gnas, "to continue." For details I refer to Chapter XV.

2

who are considered to have preceded Sakyamuni; others are the holy spirits equal in power to the Buddhas, such as the Herukas, Samvaras, &c. From all these deities thirty-five Buddhas are considered the most effectual in taking away sins, and to them accordingly the prayers of the contrite are most frequently addressed. These Buddhas are styled Tungshakchi sangye songa,1 "the thirty-five Buddhas of confession." Already in the two highly esteemed Mahayana compilations, the Ratnakūta and Mahasamaya, the adoration of these Buddhas is strongly recommended; and beautiful coloured images of them adorn the interior of numerous monasteries, where they take their places by the side of the most celebrated Indian and Tibetan priests and gods. Prayers to these Buddhas are also included in almost every Tibetan liturgy, or compilation of the daily prayers, such as the Rabsal, "principal clearness," and Zundui, "collection of charms." The number of the Buddhas implored has not been, however, limited to thirty-five; in one of these petitionary addresses, the translation of which is the object of Chapter. XI, I found their number to be fifty-one; also to the Buriats Tibetan treatises of this kind are known in which more than the original number of thirty-five Buddhas occurs.

One of these Buddhas is also Sakyamuni; he is called in the address just mentioned by his Tibetan name, Shakya Thub-pa, and is the twenty-seventh of the list; it

1 Ltung-bshags, "confession of sins;" kyi (chi)

so-Inga "thirty-five."

2 Wassiljew, "Der Buddhismus," pp. 170, 186.

the genitive case;

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is said that "if a man once utter this name he shall be purified from all sins committed in anterior existences." In sacred images representing the Buddhas of confession his figure is regularly the central and the most prominent one, the other thirty-four Buddhas being smaller and ranged above his head. In a picture which had been hung up in the temple of Gyungul, in Gnári Khórsum, the images of various sacred persons are added to these thirty-five Buddhas. Amongst the additional figures the persons in the clerical garb of the ancient Indian priests are the sixteen Netan (Sanskrit Staviras), who are said in the sacred books to have visited Ceylon, Kashmir, and the southern foot of the Kailasa or Trans Sátlej range already shortly after the first convocation of the Bikshus, held immediately after Sakyamuni's death, and to have spread in these countries Buddhist theories. Six other priests in Tibetan lamaic dress have each some words written beneath them, viz. Je Tsonkhapa; Prulku thongva dondon; Khetup sangye; Jampaijang lhai thama shesrab od; Khetub chakdor gyatso; Grubchen tsulkhrim gyatso. Tsonkhapa, the famous Lama, who was born 1355 A.D., is honoured, by the title of reverence, rje; Thongva dondon (prulku, the word preceding his name, means incarnation) was born in 1414; Khetup sangye is probably the Khetup pal-gyi senge of Csoma (born 1535);

1

1 See their Tibetan names in A. Schiefner's "Tibetanische Lebensbeschreibung Sakyamuni's," Note 43. Csoma, As. Res., Vol. XX., p. 439, has for several of them other names. The Netans enjoy great reputation amongst the Tibetans, who have recited on various occasions a hymn in their honour, entitled Netan chudrugi todpa "praise of the sixteen Netan." The library of the St. Petersburgh university has a copy of it.

Tsulkhrim gyatso (grubchen

very perfect) is probably the tenth Dalai Lama, who ruled from 1817-35;1 concerning the other two Lamas I know no particulars.

An additional figure in Chinese dress has the words Genyen darma written at his feet; Genyen (Sanskrit Upāsaka) denotes him to be an adherent to the Buddhist faith, Darma is most probably his proper name. He carries a basket filled with the sheets of a religious book, probably the Prajna Pāramitā; this very ancient mode of using a basket-case for the palm-leaves, which in former times served as paper, is said to be actually still in use in Tíbet, the single volumes of larger works being put together into a common basket. Beneath the throne is represented the goddess Lhamo (Sanskr. Kālādevi), with her attendants; Tsepagmed (Sanskr. Amitayus), the god of longevity; and the five great kings (in Tibetan Ku nga gyalpo).2

Sukhavati, the abode of the blessed.

Complete deliverance from existence, or from the world in its most general meaning, is comprised under the name of Nirvana (Tib. Nyangan las daspa, by contraction Nyangdas). The essence of Nirvana is not clearly pointed out in the sacred books; and this, indeed, is

3

See Csoma, "Grammar," pp. 181 seq.

2 About Lhamo see p. 112; concerning Tsepagmed see p. 129; about the five great Kings see Chapter XIII.

3 Respecting the difference between the genuine idea of Nirvāna, and the Tibetan opinion, see Köppen, "Die Religion des Buddha," Vol. I., p. 307.

SUKHAVATI, THE ABODE OF THE BLESSED.

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not possible in a philosophical system in which negation of reality is the fundamental principle;' and the sacred Buddhist books also declare at every occasion that it is impossible positively to define the attributes and properties of Nirvana.

2

The secondary kind of happiness, to which the Buddha has likewise revealed the path, is the enjoyment of Sukhavati, the abode of the blessed, into which ascend those who have accumulated much merit by the practise of virtues. Already the entering into Sukhavatī involves the deliverance from metemphsychosis, but not from absolute existence, nor is the perfection of the Buddhas yet attained.

In general, the Tibetans of the present day do not properly distinguish between Nirvana and Sukhavati, their highest ideal being attained by liberation from rebirth and the reception into Sukhavati. My brothers who have had frequent opportunity of consulting Tibetan Lamas, learned that particular stress is now laid upon the complete emancipation from metempsychosis. It is believed, that then they have no feeling whatever about their existence; a Lama once compared them to a healthy man, who, though provided with a stomach, lungs, a liver &c., experiences no feeling of their presence. How greatly freedom from metempsychosis is prized, appears from a conversation, which Hermann once held with a Lama of Bhután. This man who had been at Lhássa during the residence there of the French mission

1 See p. 33.

2 Compare p. 42.