in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather further | Hazor, has been found by the survey party in 1877 apply- The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil, and soap (from the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd. The antiquities of Galilee include cromlechs and rude. stone monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine churches of the time of the crusades. There are also remains of Greek architecture in various places, but the most interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues. These have not been found in other parts of Palestine, but in Galilee eleven examples are now known, They are rectangular, with the door to the south, and three rows of columns forming four aisles east and west. The architecture is a peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, attributed by architects to the 2d century of our era. The builder of the examples at Kefr Birim, el Jish, and Meirûn is known to have been the famous Simeon bar Jochai, who lived about 150 A.D., and built 24 synagogues in Galilee. The similarity of style renders it probable that the other examples at Tell Hûm, Kerâzeh, Ñebartein, Umm el 'Amed, and Sufsâf were also his work. Both at el Jish and at Kefr Birim there are two synagogues, large and small. At Irbid, above Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different character, which is said to have been built by Rabbi Nitai. Traces of synagogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west of Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of various animals in relief on the lintels of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the carved work of the cornices and capitals is very rich. These synagogues were erected at a time when the Galilean Jews were flourishing under the Roman empire, and when Tiberias was the central seat of Jewish learning and of the Sanhedrin. Upper Galilee.The mountains are tilted up towards the sea of Galilee, and the drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the rocky range of Jebel Jermuk rises to 4000 feet above the sea; on the east a narrow ridge 2800 feet high forms the watershed, with steep eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately west of the watershed are two small plateaus, covered with basaltic debris, near el Jish and Kades. On the west are rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Chrisdrains of the country are-first, Wâdy el 'Ayûn, rising north tian kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly of Jebel Jermûk, and running north-west as an open valley, protected by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which and secondly, Wâdy el Ahjâr, a rugged precipitous gorge still crown the most important strategical points. Toron running north to join the Leontes. The district is well (now Tibnîn) was built in 1104, the first fortress erected by provided with springs throughout, and the valleys are full the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains of water in the spring time. Though rocky and difficult, of Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab, built in 1182) stood Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is rich, on a precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the and guarded the advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about neighbourhood of Kefr Birim. The principal town is Safed, the same time Château Neuf (Hunîn) was erected above the perched on a white mountain 2700 feet above the sea. It Hûleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukif), on the north bank of has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians, the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat and Moslems. It is one of the four sacred cities in Pales- earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow tine revered by the Jews, to which nationality the majority spur north-east of Acre, completing the chain of frontier of the inhabitants belong. Among the smaller towns we fortresses, The town of Bânias, with its castle, formed also may notice Meirûn, near Safed, a place also much re- a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the scene, in vered by the Jews as containing the tombs of Hillel, common with the other strongholds, of many desperate Shammai, and Simon bar Jochai. A yearly festival of most encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee curious character is here celebrated in honour of these rabbis. was the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the The site of Hazor, one of the chief towns of Galilee in Christians. In 1250 the knights of the Teutonic order Bible times, has also been lately recovered. It was situated, owned lands extending round Acre as far east as the Sea of according to Josephus, above the Lake Semechonitis (Bahr Galilee, and including Safed. These possessions were lost el Hûleh), and the name Hudîreh, identical with the Hebrew in 1291, on the fall of Acre. (C. R. C.) GA serves of the interes also c Lake have b GALILEE, THE SEA OF, with its surrounding shores, de- | valleys. It measures 34 miles along the shore, and is 1 mile serves a more special description than that given of the rest of the district, as being the part of Palestine which most interests modern students and travellers. The lake was also called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth, and the Lake of Gennesaret or Tiberias; and by Pliny it is said to have been once called Lake of Taricheæ. In form it is pear shaped, 12 English miles in length, and 7 at its greatest width. The level is now known to be 682.5 feet below the Mediterranean. The water is fresh and clear, and large shoals of fish abound in it. The formation of the lake basin occurred later than the Chalk period, and was due to a subsidence of the strata, which appears to have been sudden and violent, and probably accompanied by extensive volcanic eruptions from three centres east, west, and north of the lake. The district has always been liable to volcanic disturbance and to earthquakes. In 1837 Safed and Tiberias were destroyed by earthquake, and the temperature of the hot springs round the lake was then observed to rise considerably for a time, On The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western precipices, and presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with black basalt. On the west the plateau of el Ahma terminates in precipices 1700 feet above the lake, and over these the black rocky tops called "the Horns of Hattîn " are conspicuous objects. the south is a broad valley through which the Jordan flows. On the east are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the great plateau of the Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the lake through a narrow gorge between lower hills. A marshy plain, 2 miles long and 1 broad, called el Batihah, exists immediately east of the Jordan inlet. There is also on the west side of the lake a small plain called el Ghuweir, formed by the junction of three large wide. This plain, naturally fertile, but now almost uncultivated, is recognized to be the plain of Gennesareth, described by Josephus (B. J., iii. 10, 8). The shores of the lake are of fine shingle. On the east the hills approach in one place within 40 feet of the water, but there is generally a width of about of a mile from the hills to the beach. On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an average width of about 200 yards. A few scattered palms dot the western shores, and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Hârib on the south-east. Thermal springs are found. on each side of the lake, with an average temperature of about 80° Fahr. The hot baths south of Tiberias include seven springs, the largest of which has a temperature of 137° Fahr. The plain of Gennesareth, with its environs, is the best watered part of the lake-basin. North of this plain are the five springs of et Tabghah, the largest of which was enclosed about a century ago by Aly, son of Dhahr el 'Amr, in an octagonal reservoir, and the water led off by an aqueduct 52 feet above the lake. The Tabghah springs, though abundant, are warm and brackish. At the north end of the plain is 'Ain et Tîneh ("spring of the fig-tree"), also a brackish spring with a good stream; south of the plain is 'Ain el Bârdeh ("the cold spring"), which is sweet, but scarcely lower in temperature than the others. The most important spring remains still to be noticed, namely, 'Ain el Madâwerah ("the round spring"), situated 1 mile from the south end of the plain and half a mile from the shore. The water rises in a circular well 32 feet in diameter, and is clear and sweet, with a temperature of 73° Fahr. The bottom is of loose sand, and the fish called coracinus by Josephus (B. J., iii. 10, 8) is here found in abundance. Dr Tristram was the first explorer to identify this fish, and points out that it could not exist in the other springs. We are thus able to identify the "round spring" with the fountain of Capharnaum, which, according to Josephus, watered the plain of Gennesareth. The principal sites of interest round the lake may be enumerated from north to west and from south to east. Kerâzeh, the undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur 900 feet above the lake, 2 miles north of the shore. Foundations and scattered stones cover the slopes and the flat valley below. On the west is a rugged gorge. In the middle of the ruins are the remains of a synagogue of richly ornamental style built of black basalt. A small spring occurs on the north. Tell Hûm is an important ruin on the shore south of the last mentioned site. The remains consist of foundations and scattered stones (which in spring are concealed by gigantic thistles) extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations of a fine synagogue, measuring 75 feet by 57, and built in white limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has been erected close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell Hûm synagogue. Since the 4th century Tell Hûm has been pointed out by all the Christian writers as the site of Capernaum, but the fatal objections to such an identification are-(1) the great distance from the fountain of Capharnaum, and (2) the fact that Jewish tradition preserves another site. The ruins at Tell Hum are not of necessity as old as the time of Christ. The name Hum means "black," and is probably connected with the surrounding black basalt. The place seems to be mentioned in the Talmud under the titles Caphar Ahim and Caphar Tanhumin (see Neubauer's Geog. Tal., p. 220). Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of Gennesareth, 2 miles from the last, and close to the shore. There are extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and foundations, with traces of a wall once surrounding the site. Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here discovered in course of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of an old khân, which appears to have been built in the Middle Ages; and above this a curious | rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings South of the plain of Gennesareth is the undisputed site of the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the hill slope, with a modern tomb-house or kubbeh. Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tabarîya, the ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, and now partly destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el 'Amr, as was the serai or court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by his sons. There are remains of a crusading church, and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside, The ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a distance of 9 miles from the south. remain, with traces of an old street and fallen columns and Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 feet above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the description given by Josephus of the city of Tariches, which lay 30 stadia. from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities. Tarichea was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the Ghôr). Pliny further informs us that Tariche was at the south end of the Sea of Galilee. Sinnabreh, a ruin on a spur of the hills close to the lastmentioned site, is undoubtedly the ancient Sinnabris, where Vespasian (Joseph., B. J., iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisân) on Tariches and Tiberias. Sinnabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing. Literature. The most important works on the subject of Galilee The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The town of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, was situated 30 stadia from Tiberias, and 60 stadia from Gadara (Umm Keis). It is conjectured that the town Susitha, mentioned in the Talmud, is the same place, and the name Susyeh seems to have existed east of the Sea of Galilee at a late period. Susitha from "sus," meaning "horse," is, etymologically at least, suggestive of the Greek "hippos." The site is at present unknown. Kalat el Hosn ("castle of the stronghold") is a ruin on a GALILEO. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), one of the earliest and greatest of experimental philosophers, was born at Pisa, February 18, 1564. His father, Vincenzo, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in 1343, of one of its members, Galileo de' Bonajuti, to the college of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was fifteen times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzo Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a competent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and practice of music, and was especially distinguished amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia de' Ammannati of Pistoja, he had two sons, Galileo and Michelangiolo, and two daughters, Virginia and Livia. From his earliest childhood Galileo was remarkable for intellectual aptitude, as well as for mechanical invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of toy-machines, not the less original and ingenious that their successful working was usually much hindered by the scarcity of suitable materials. His application to literary studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence, where his education was principally conducted, he not only made himself acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of the brilliant and elegant style for which his writings were afterwards distinguished. From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic, according to the system then in vogue; but the futilities of the science revolted, while its subtleties failed to permitte documen was at t to have who had an attac the care the unre matics, more straining complet He accu mediate celebrat The failed to interest his understanding, and he was soon permitted to abandon a study so distasteful to him. A document published by M. Selmi in 1864 proves that he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to have joined the novitiate of the order; but his father, who had other designs for him, seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to withdraw him permanently from the care of the monks. Having had personal experience of the unremunerative character both of music and of mathematics, he desired that his son should apply himself to the more profitable study of medicine, and, not without some straining of his slender resources, placed him, before he had completed his eighteenth year, at the university of Pisa. He accordingly matriculated, November 5, 1581, and immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures of the celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino. undying hostility of the bigoted Aristotelians of that day. From the leaning tower of Pisa he afforded to all the professors and students of the university ocular demonstration of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that heavy bodies fall with velocities proportional to their weights, and with unanswerable logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the schools regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his adversaries. The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not calculated to soothe the susceptibilities of men already smarting under the deprivation of their most cherished illusions. He seems, in addition, to have compromised his position with the grand-ducal family by the imprudent candour with which he condemned a machine for clearing the port of Leghorn, invented by Giovanni de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo I. The natural gifts of the young student, not less multi- Princely favour being withdrawn, private rancour was free farious than those of an earlier Tuscan prodigy, Leonardo to show itself. He was publicly hissed at his lecture, and da Vinci, seemed at this time equally ready to develop in found it prudent to resign his professorship and withdraw any direction towards which choice or hazard might incline to Florence in 1591. Through the death of his father in them. In musical skill and invention be already vied with July of that year family cares and responsibilities devolved the best professors of the art in Italy; his personal taste upon him as eldest son, and thus his nomination to the chair would have led him to choose painting as his profession, of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by the inand one of the most eminent artists of his day, Lodovico fluence of the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian senate, Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he was was welcome, as affording a relief from pecuniary embarrassmainly indebted for the success of his works; his wit and ment, no less than as opening a field for scientific distinction. eloquence gave promise that he would one day add to the His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of literary glories of his country; while his mathematical and eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninmechanical genius only awaited a suitable opportunity for terrupted prosperity. His appointment was three times full display and development. In 1583, while watching renewed, on each occasion with expressions of the highest the vibrations of the great bronze lamp still to be seen esteem on the part of the governing body, and his yearly swinging from the roof of the cathedral of Pisa, he observed salary was progressively raised from 180 to 1000 florins. that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were His lectures were attended by persons of the highest disinvariably executed in equal times. The experimental tinction from all parts of Europe, and such was the charm verification of this fact led him to the important discovery of his demonstrations that a hall capable of containing 2000 of the isochronism of the pendulum. He at first applied people had eventually to be assigned for the accommodation the new principle to pulse-measurement, and more than of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His fifty years later turned it to account in the construction of ingenious invention of the proportional compasses-an an astronomical clock. Up to this time he was entirely instrument still used in geometrical drawing-dates from ignorant of mathematics, his father having carefully held 1597; and about the same time he constructed the first him aloof from a study which he rightly apprehended would thermometer, consisting of a bulb and tube filled with air lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. Acci- and water, and terminating in a vessel of water. dent, however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in instrument, the results of varying atmospheric pressure were geometry, given by Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand- not distinguishable from the expansive and contractive ducal court, then temporarily resident at Pisa, chanced to effects of heat and cold, and it became an efficient measure have Galileo for an unseen listener; his attention was of temperature only when Rinieri, in 1646, introduced the riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he threw all improvement of hermetically sealing the liquid in glass. his energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly preThe substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water completed sented to him. With Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered the modern thermometer. the elements of the science, and eventually extorted his father's reluctant permission to exchange Hippocrates and Galen for Euclid and Archimedes. In 1586 he was withdrawn from the university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree, and returned to Florence, where his family habitually resided. We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy on the site and dimensions of Dante's Inferno; and he shortly afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the hydrostatical balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy. His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo del Monte of Pesaro, a man eminent for his scientific attainments, as well as influential by his family connexions. At his request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of gravity in solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of "the Archimedes of his time,' the honourable though not lucrative post of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During the ensuing two years (1589-91) he carried on that remarkable series of experiments, by which he established the first principles of dynamical science, and by which he earned for himself the In this Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from avowing his opinions-as is proved by his letter to Kepler of August 4, 1597-by the fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. The appearance, in September 1604, of a new star in the constellation Serpentarius, afforded him indeed an opportunity, of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an onslaught upon the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the heavens; but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent implement of research placed at his command startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as to the constitution and mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was not the original inventor of the telescope.1 That 1 The word telescope, from Tλe, far, okowéw, to view, was invented by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at the request of Prince Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was used by Galileo as early as 1612, but was not introduced into English until much later. In 1655 the word telescope was inserted in Bagwell's Mysteries of Astronomy, as a term requiring explanation, trunk or cylinder being commonly used instead. honour must be assigned to Hans Lippershey, an obscure | Quirinal Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His researches with the telescope had been rewarded by the Venetian senate with the appointment for life to his professorship, at an unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery of the "Medicean Stars" was acknowledged by his nomination (July 12, 1610) as philosopher and mathematician extraordinary to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments of this office, which involved no duties save that of continuing his scientific labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, which induced him to accept an offer, the first suggestion of which had indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 the memorable cycle of discoveries begun in the previous year was completed by the observation of the ansated or, as it appeared to Galileo, triple form of Saturn (the ring-formation was first recognized by Huygens in 1655), of the phases of Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. Although his priority in several of these discoveries has been contested, inquiry has in each case proved favourable to his claims. In the spring of 1611 he visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the 1 Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come to the same conclusion. Not Cardinal Robert Bellarmine was at that time by far the most influential member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast learning and upright piety, but, although personally friendly to Galileo, there is no doubt that he saw in his scientific teachings a danger to religion. The year 1615 seems, however, to have been a period of suspense. Galileo received, as the result of a conference between Cardinals Bellarmine and Del Monte, a semi-official warning to avoid theology, and limit himself to physical reasoning. "Write freely," he was told by Monsignor Dini, "but keep outside the sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself to dangerous ground, In December he repaired personally to Rome, full of confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity of his eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical court to his views. He was cordially received, and eagerly listened to, but his imprudent ardour served but to injure his cause. On the 24th of February 1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the two propositions--that the sun is imm has a d philoso trary t Same C faith and the Coper salatel |