The following Articles in this volume are copyrighted in the United States of America, viz.— ALBERT GALLATIN. Copyright, 1879, by HENRY CABOT LODGE. GALVESTON. Copyright, 1879, by A. & C. BLACK. GARRISON: an Outline of his Life. Copyright, 1879, by CHArles Scribner'S SONS. GEORGIA: Its History, Condition, and Resources. With Map. Copyright, 1879, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. The Article GERMANY (PART II., HISTORY) is Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year 1879, HARVARD LIBRARY. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. G G represents the sound of Gamma, the third letter of the Greek alphabet; but in the Latin alphabet, and in the alphabets derived from the Latin (including our own), it holds the place which Z held in the different Greek alphabets. The history of this remarkable change is well known. It has been already stated (see letter C) that in the 5th century before our era, the distinction between the k-sound and the g-sound became lost at Rome: apparently the surviving sound was g; but, at all events, the symbol K went out of use, being retained only in a few familiar abbreviations, and C (which was the Latinized form of the Greek T) remained. Thus in the column of Duillius we find C representing the original surd in castreis, cepet, &c., but the sonant in macistratos, leciones, ceset (i.e., gessit), &c. When, in the 3d century, the two sounds were again distinguished, two symbols were again required; but the K was not taken again to represent the surd; C, the old symbol for the sonant, was put to that use. A new symbol was therefore necessary for the sonant g-sound, and it was found by modifying Cinto G. This G should then have replaced C as the third letter of the alphabet, where it would have stood, as before, between B and D, the sonants of the labial and dental classes respectively. But this was not done. The symbol C was left in its old place with its new value of k. The new symbol G was set in the seventh place of the alphabet, which had been vacated by Z, the representative of a sound not used by the Romans of that day. G is found for the first time in the inscription on the tomb of Scipio Barbatus. Its invention is attributed to Spurius Carvilius. There can be no doubt that the sound of G in Latin, as of T in Greek, was always the sonant guttural-which we hear in gate, &c. It was not the sonant palatal, which it represents in gem or gin. This sound began to supplant it about the 6th century of our era, but only when it preceded e or i-the two vowels which require a position of the tongue nearer to the palatal than to the guttural consonants. We find this change of sound in French and in Italian. In the Latin part of our vocabulary there is naturally the same weakening; whereas, in words of English origin, the original guttural is generally preserved, even before e or i, as in get and give. Sometimes it has been weakened at the end of a word, as in bridge and ridge, which were originally brigg and rigg, and are still so in the north of England. It is noteworthy how a g-sound made its appearance in French at the beginning of words which originally began with the w-sound. An example is guerre, a borrowed word from the Teutonic; we see it in Old High German as werra, a quarrel. The Gauls apparently found a difficulty in producing the initial German sound, and (there being no difference in the position of the back of the mouth for g and w, except that the passage between the back-palate and the tongue is entirely closed for g, but left slightly open for w) they did not keep the w pure, but sounded a g before it by unintentionally closing the oral passage for a moment. The same thing is seen in guérir, which corresponds to Gothic varjan; in garant, which we have in English warrant; garnir corresponds to Anglo-Saxon warnian. few instances the word so modified seems to have been originally Latin, as gaîne, a sheath, the Latin vagina. In a This French change has led to a curious result in England. Many words were introduced by the Normans into England in their French form, which were already existent there in their Teutonic form. Thus we have such pairs as wile and guile, wise and guise, warranty and guarantee, wager and gage, and many others. It is strange that in so many cases each of the pair of words should have remained in use, and with so little change of meaning. GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), a distinguished linguist and ethnologist, born at Altenburg, October 13, 1807, was the only son of Hans Karl Leopold von der Gabelentz, chancellor and privy-councillor of the duchy of Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he attended the gymnasium of his native town, where he had Matthiæ (the eminent Grecist) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius Löbe for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, he carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the latter language continued especially to engage his attention during his undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the universities of Leipsic and Göttingen. In 1830 he entered the public service of the duchy of Altenburg, where he attained to the rank of privy-councillor in 1843. Four years later he was chosen to fill the post of 'landmarschall in the grand-duchy of Weimar, and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort parliament, and represented " the Saxon duchies on the commission for drafting an im- | perial constitution for Germany. In November of the same year he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was president of the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but in the latter year he withdrew entirely from public life, that he might give undivided attention to his learned researches. He died on his estate of Lemnitz, in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3d of September 1874. In the course of his life he is said to have learned no ed no fewer than eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and elegance. But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition than for the higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge to the genuine advancement of linguistic science. Immediately after quitting the university, he followed up his Chinese researches by a study of the Finno-Tataric languages, which resulted in the publication of his Élémens de la Grammaire Mandchoue in 1832. In 1837 he became one of the promoters, and a joint-editor, of the Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, and through this medium he gave to the world his Versuch einer mordwinischen Grammatik and other valuable contributions. His Grundzüge der syrjänischen Grammatik appeared in 1841. In conjunction with his old school friend, Julius Löbe, the Germanist, he brought out a complete edition, with translation, glossary, and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic version of the Bible (Leipsic, 1843-46); and from 1847 he began to contribute to the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft the fruits of his researches into the languages of the Suahilis, the Samoyeds, the Hazaras, the Aimaks, the Formosans, and other widelyseparated tribes. The Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde (Leipsic, 1852) contain Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a Grammatik u. Wörterbuch der Kassiasprache, and in 1860 a treatise in universal grammar (Ueber das Passivum). In 1864 he edited the Manchou translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king, and Shi-king, along with a dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work which constitutes his most important contribution to philology, Die melanesischen Sprachen nach ihrem grammatischen Bau und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den malaiisch-polynesischen Sprachen untersucht (Leipsic, 1860-73). It treats of the language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the Polynesian class. He also contributed most of the linguistic articles in Pierer's Conversations-Lexicon. principal relic of the ancient city is a ruined temple (probably of Juno) on a hill now crowned by the ruins of the medieval fortress of Castiglione. It is a hexastyle structure of uncertain date, uniting the characteristics of Greek and Italian architecture; but the fragments of the pillars are not sufficient to show whether it belonged to the Ionic or the Corinthian order. Its length is about 48 English feet. Since 1792, when explorations were commenced by the Prince Borghese, a large number of minor antiquities have been discovered at Gabii, and the sites of the forum and a theatre have been ascertained. The statues and busts are especially numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, Diana, Nemesis, &c., they comprise Marcus Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and Sabina, Aurelius Antoninus, L. Septimius Severus, Septimius Geta, Gordianus Pius, &c. The inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal matters. In the neighbourhood of Gabii were valuable and extensive quarries of an excellent building stone, known as the lapis Gabinus, which was largely used by the Romans. It was a hard and compact variety of volcanic tufa, and closely resembled the lapis Albanus, to which, however, it was superior. The name of cinctus Gabinus was given by the Romans to a peculiar method of girding the toga, with one end thrown over the head and the other fastened round the waist, which was employed by the founder of a new town, or by the consul when he "declared war in the name of the Roman people, or devoted himself to death for his country. ' GABII, an old, and at one time important, city of Latium, on the Via Prænestina, or road to Præneste, between 12 and 13 miles E. of Rome. Long before the foundation of Rome, Gabii appears to have been one of the largest of the Latin cities; and, according to an old tradition noticed by Dionysius and Plutarch, Romulus and Remus were educated there. During the greater part of the regal period of Rome Gabii maintained its ground, and it only fell into the hands of Tarquin the Proud through a stratagem contrived by his son Sextus, who was afterwards slain by the inhabitants, when, on the expulsion of his family from Rome, he sought refuge in the town. After this period Gabii always appears in history as the ally or dependent of its more powerful neighbour, and it gradually fell into such a state of decay as to become a proverb of desolation-Gabiis desertior. The fame of its cold sulphurous waters gave new life to the place in the reign of Tiberius; and the emperor Hadrian, one of whose favourite residences was not far distant, at Tivoli, appears to have been a very liberal patron, building a town-house (Curia Elia Augusta) and an aqueduct. After the 3d century Cabii practically disappears from history, though its "bishops" continue to be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of the 9th. The See Ciampini, Monumenta Vetera (which contains a plan and elevation of the temple); Gallatti, Gabii antica città di Sabina scoperta, 1757; Fea, Lettere sopra la scoperta delle rovine della città di Gabio, 1792; Visconti, Monumenti Gabini della villa Pinciana, Rome, 1797, new edition, Milan, 1835; Gell, Rome and its vicinity; Nibby, Contorni di Roma; and Canina, Storia e topographia di Roma antica. An interesting comparison of the temple of Juno with the similar building at Aricia was contributed by Abeken to the Annali dell. instit. di corr. arch., Rome, 1841. GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), a German philosophical writer of the school of Hegel, was born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, where his father was professor, on the 30th of July 1786. In 1804, when his father was translated to Jena, he accompanied him to that university, where he completed his studies in philosophy and law, and became one of the most enthusiastic of the hearers and disciples of Hegel. After holding successive educational appointments at Weimar, Nuremberg, and Ansbach, he, in 1817, became one of the masters in the gymnasium at Baireuth. In 1821 he was appointed rector, and in 1830 general superintendent of schools. In 1827 he brought out the first volume of a Lehrbuch der philosophischen Propädeutik als Einleitung zur Wissenschaft, in which his design was to give a popular exposition of the Hegelian philosophy, which he himself regarded as fitted to give "absolute satisfaction to the faculties of thinking and knowing." In 1835 he succeeded Hegel in the Berlin chair. His other works were a treatise De vera philosophiæ erga religionem Christianam pietate (1836), and Die Hegel'sche Philosophie, a defence of the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg, which was published in 1843. He died at Teplitz, September 13, 1853. GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1753-1826), a learned Protestant theologian of the school of Griesbach and Eichhorn, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, June 4, 1753. He had already acquired an extensive acquaintance with the ancient languages and their literatures, as well as with the philosophy of Wolf and the theology of Baumgarten, when, in his nineteenth year, he entered the university of Jena as a divinity student. In 1776 he was on the point of abandoning theological pursuits, when the arrival of Griesbach inspired him with new ardour. After having |