treachery by one of his colleagues, he defended himself with such spirit, that he was acquitted by his volatile countrymen; but, though he lived to a great age, he did not again engage in active service. In the early part of his career, he restored to his dominions Seuthes, king of Thrace, whose daughter he married. Iphicrates was a strict observer of discipline, and was the author of some important improvements in the arms and accoutrements of the Athenian soldiery. He was accustomed always to fortify his camp in the field, even in a friendly country; and, when once asked why he took so much trouble, he answered, "Because, if, contrary to probability, I should be attacked, I may not be obliged to make the disgraceful excuse, that I did not expect it."

IPHIGENIA, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra (according to some, an illegitimate daughter of Theseus and Helen, adopted by Clytemnestra in childhood), was to have been sacrificed to Diana, at the advice of the prophet Calchas, when the goddess, enraged with Agamemnon, because he had slain, in hunting, her consecrated hind, detained the Greek fleet in Aulis by a calm. Under the pretence that she was to be married to Achilles, Iphigenia was taken from her mother, and led to the altar. But, in the moment when the priest was about to give the death blow, Iphigenia disappeared, and, in her stead, a beautiful hind was substituted, whose blood gushed out on the altar. Diana had relented, and conveyed her in a cloud to Tauris, where she became the priestess of the goddess. Conformably with the cruel law of the country, she was obliged to sacrifice every Greek that landed there. Her brother Orestes, coming thither on his wanderings, in despair at the murder of his mother, and wishing to take away the statues of Diana, was likewise condemned to be sacrificed to the goddess. A recognition took place in the temple, and, after deliberating on the means of escape, Orestes succeeded in removing Iphigenia and the statues of Diana. Some nations maintained, that they derived the worship of Diana of Tauris from Iphigenia. She herself is said to have arrived at the island of Leuca, and, after being endowed with immortal youth, and the name of Orilochia, to have married the shade of Achilles. Pausanias says that her grave was shown at Megara. In two famous operas by Gluck, and Göhe's masterpiece, Iphigenia auf Tauris Iphigenia at Tauris), Iphigenia is the leading character.

IPHITUS; king of Elis, in Greece, the son of Praxonidas, and grandson of Oxylus, memorable as the institutor of the famous Olympic games. They are said to have been originally celebrated by Pelops, or, according to some, by Hercules, in honor of Jupiter; and, after being neglected for several ages, they were restored or reestablished by Iphitus. Controversies have arisen as to the age in which this prince lived. Some chronologers place him 884 B. C.; but sir Isaac Newton has shown that he probably lived a century later, and that the first games of his institution were held 776 B. C.; from which period they were continued, without interruption, for several centuries. (See Olympic Games.)

IPSARA. (See Psara.) IPSILANTI. (See Ypsilanti.) IRAK ADJEMI. (See Persia.) IRAK ARABI; the ancient Babylonia and Chaldæa.

IRAN. (See Persia.)

IRELAND; a large and fertile island of Europe, in the Atlantic ocean, lying to the west of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish sea, or St. George's channel; in some parts 120 miles broad, in others not above 12 miles. This country is situated between lon. 5° 19′ and 10° 28′ W., and lat. 51° 15′ and 55° 23′ N.; its superficial extent is not accurately known. Pinkerton assigns it an area of 27,451 square miles; Wakefield, of 32,201. Ireland is divided into four great provinces, viz. Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, and Munster, which are again divided into 32 counties, containing 2436 parishes. Ulster, which occupies the northern part of the kingdom, contains nine counties, viz. Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone. Leinster, situated to the east, contains 12 counties, viz. Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King's county, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's county, Westmeath, Wexford, and Wicklow. Connaught, towards the west, contains five counties, viz. Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. Munster, which occupies the southern part of the kingdom, contains six counties, viz. Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, and Waterford. The face of the country affords a pleasing variety of surface. In some parts there are rich and fertile plains, watered by large and beautiful streams, while in other parts hills are found in frequent succession, which give an agreeable diversity to the scenery. The mountainous chains of Ireland are neither number

ous nor important; for, though the country contains many hills of considerable elevation, yet they are not of such height, nor are they collected into such masses, as to give to Ireland the character of a mountainous country. The hilly parts of Ireland are, in general, of easy ascent, and admit of culture a considerable way up their sides; some of them, however, are precipitous, and terminate in cones, or spires. The principal rivers are the Shannon, the Bandon, the Lee, the Blackwater, or Broadwater, the Liffey, the Boyne, the Suire, the Barrow, the Slaney, and the Bann; the principal lakes, or loughs, lough Neagh, lough Erne, and lough Corrib. Lough Lane, or the lake of Killarney, is the most distinguished for its beauties. The harbors of Ireland are excellent and very numerous; these are Waterford and Cork harbors on the south, Bantry and Dingle bays on the south-west, the estuary of the Shannon and the vast bay of Galway on the west, that great opening on the northwest, of which the bay of Sligo is a part. Lough Swilly and lough Foyle, on the north, are the most considerable. On the east side are the harbors of Belfast and Newry, and the barred havens of Dublin, Drogheda and Wexford. The principal commercial towns are Dublin, Cork, Belfast, Limerick and Waterford. The numerous lakes and rivers render the inland navigation extensive, and are connected by several canals. (See Canals.) The climate of Ireland is, in general, more temperate than the climate of other countries in the same latitude; the heat of summer is less oppressive, and the cold of winter less severe. It is also much more inclined to moisture, falls of rain being more frequent, and the atmosphere, even when there is no rain, being impregnated with a moisture which affects the walls of houses, as well as furniture and other articles. The soil of Ireland is, generally speaking, a fertile loam, with a rocky substratum. The bogs of Ireland form a very remarkable feature of the country; these are of different kinds, and in some places are very extensive. In the reports of the commissioners appointed, in 1809, to inquire into the nature and extent of Irish bogs, their extent is stated at 2,830,000 English acres. The greater part were considered by the commissioners to form one connected whole; and a portion of Ireland, of little more than one fourth of its entire superficial contents, and included between a line drawn from Wicklow-head to Galway, and another drawn from Howth-head to Šligo, was supposed by the commission

ers to comprise within it six sevenths of the bogs in the island, exclusive of some mountain bogs and bays of less extent than 500 acres. They were perfectly convinced of the practicability of draining these marshes. Ireland is said to rest on a bed of granite, and granite is accordingly abundant, also limestone. The basaltic region is in the north-eastern part of the island. (See Giant's Causeway.) A great variety of marbles is found, also gypsum, fuller's earth and coal. Precious stones have been discovered in Ireland, namely, beryls, amethysts and jaspers, and also various species of crystals, which are hard, large, and very brilliant. Pieces of native gold have also been found. There are mines of lead, copper and cobalt, some of which have been wrought to great advantage, and some are at present worked by the Irish mining company. Two copper mines are now worked in the county of Cork. Iron ore is abundant, and in the middle of the 17th century, iron-works were very common. Mineral springs, chiefly chalybeates, are found in almost every county. There is a remarkable deficiency of wood in Ireland, though old historians speak of the country as a continuous forest. The woods were destroyed with so unsparing a hand, that wellgrown timber is rarely to be seen. In the 17th century, they were infested with wolves. Notwithstanding the great fertility of the soil, the average produce is much less than in England, owing to the backward state of agriculture. In 1809, it was calculated that two millions of acres were employed in the culture of grain, about 800,000 in that of potatoes, and 150,000 in that of flax. The amount of land at present under tillage is probably five millions. The average amount of grain exported, in the four years preceding 1728, was 26,638 quarters; in 1825, it amounted to 12,774,442 quarters, although the population had trebled in the mean time. remarkable results appear in the number of cattle reared. The bullocks, cows and horses exported, on an average of seven years preceding 1770, amounted to 2127; in 1826, they amounted to 66,649. In the same year were exported 72,101 sheep, and 65,919 swine. The cattle are of a very excellent description. The butter trade is considered, at present, as the staple trade, and a much greater extent of country is covered by dairy_than by grazing farms. In 1824, 521,465 cwts. of butter were exported, and the quantity has since increased. The cultivation of flax, on a large scale, dates from the beginning of

The same

The commercial intercourse between Great Britain and Ireland having been put on the footing of the coasting trade, in 1824, there are no official records later than the above; but it is well known that the linen manufacture has continued to decline, and has yielded no profits for the last six years, partly on account of the comparative cheapness of cotton stuffs, and partly on account of the manufacture of an article composed of linen and cotton, which deceives the most practised eye, and is sold at half the price. The cotton manufacture has, however, increased. The cotton stuffs manufactured in Ire land, and exported to Great Britain, amounted, in

The consumption of cotton goods in the country is more than double what it was 20 years ago. The country possesses many natural advantages for the woollen manufacture, but it has been crippled by the English legislation. The silk manufacture has much declined. The distilleries of Ireland are very extensive, and a considerable quantity of whiskey is exported. In 1826, 9,895,567 gallons of spirits were produced from the licensed distilleries, and the quantity from unlicensed stills was estimated at six millions. The industry and resources of the country have been wonderfully developed during the latter part of the last century, and still more since the beginning of the present century, as appears from the following table of the total exports and imports:—

The net produce of the ordinary revenue of the kingdom amounts to nearly five millions annually (exclusive of loans and duties appropriated to national objects), which is ten times the sum that was raised with difficulty in the first half of the last century, and about four times the amount raised at the beginning of this century. The debt of Ireland in 1817 was £134,602,769; but it was then considered expedient to unite the exchequer of Ireland with that of Great Britain, and thus consolidate the public debts of the two kingdoms. The population of the country has also increased rapidly and steadily. In 1695, it was estimated at 1,034,000; in 1754, at 2,372,634; in 1785, at 2,845,932. In 1821, the census gave 6,846,999 as the total population; and, according to estimates formed by M. Moreau, in 1827, it amounted to 7,672,000. A calculation, founded chiefly on returns from schools, gives 1,970,000 Protestants (of whom 700,000 are Presbyterians) 4,780,000 Catholics, and the remainder uncertain. The established church of Ireland resembles that of England. The dignitaries are four archbishops,-of Armagh (primate of all Ireland), of Dublin (primate of Ireland), of Cashel, and of Tuam, and 18 bishops. The average revenue of these sees is about £9,000 per annum; the income of two of the primates is £14,000; of the bishop of Derry, 15,000; of the bishop of Elphin, 12,000. The number of parishes is stated at 2167, the beneficed clergy at 1300, and the curates at 400. The clergy not of the established church are estimated at about 2378, viz. 1994 Roman Catholic, 239 Presbyterian, and 145 of other sects.

Their whole income is about £264,000. "In Ireland," says the Eclectic Review (1823), "the church of England has the tithes, the church of Rome the people. Of nearly seven millions of people, 53 millions are Roman Catholics, above one million dissenters, and less than half a million (400,000) adherents of the establishment. To minister to these 400,000 hearers, there are 1700 clergy (of whom 587 are dignitaries), with an income of £1,300,000." The income of the clergy of the other 6 millions we have above mentioned is £264,000. (Consult Moreau's Statistical State of Ireland (London, 1827), Wakefield's Account of Ireland (1812), Young's, Beaufort's, Reid's (1823) Travels in Ireland.) Until 1800, Ireland had a separate parliament; but, the union with England having been effected in that year, the country is now represented in the imperial parliament. The government is administered by a viceroy appointed by the king, with the title of lord lieutenant of Ireland. An Irish chancellor, commander of the forces, chief secretary, vicetreasurer, and attorney and solicitor general, &c., compose the Irish ministry. In 1827, the Irish peers were 213-1 duke, 14 marquises, 76 earls, 48 viscounts, 70 barons, and 4 peeresses. They are represented in the British house of lords by 28 representative peers; the church is also represented by four representative bishops. The Irish commons are represented by 64 knights and 36 citizens and burgesses. By 10 George IV, c. 8 (13 April, 1829), a freehold of £10 clear yearly value is made a qualification for voters, in the election of knights of the shires, and the 40 shilling freeholders, of whom the number was 184,492, are disfranchised.

The beginning of the history of Ireland is enveloped in fable. The historians of the country (O'Flaherty, Keating, O'Halloran, Vallancey, Plowden) speak of Greek and Phoenician colonies, give lists of kings, &c., for which there is no historical foundation. The vernacular language of the Irish proves that they are a part of the great Celtic race, which was once spread all over Western Europe. (See Ġaul.) No Irish manuscript has been found more ancient than the 10th century. The oldest and most authentic Irish records were written between the 10th and 12th centuries; some of them go back, with some consistency, as far as the Christian era; but there is no evidence that the Irish had the use of letters before the middle of the fifth century, when Christianity and Christian literature were introduced by St. Patrick.

The new faith did not flourish till a century later, when St. Columba erected monasteries. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the scholars of Ireland were among the most distinguished at the courts of the Saxon kings, and of Charlemagne. But when the Northmen commenced their descents on the coasts, the ecclesiastics took to flight; and it is evident, from the condition of the people at a later period, that the learning of the Irish clergy never extended beyond the walls of the monasteries. Divided among a number of barbarous and hostile chiefs, Ireland had been for a long time torn by internal wars, and, for nearly two centuries, ravaged by the Danes, when, in the beginning of the 11th century, Brian Borrhoimi, or Boroihmh (the Conqueror), united the greater part of the island under his sceptre, restored publie tranquillity, and expelled the northern invaders. In 1155, Henry II, king of England, obtained a bull from Adrian IV, granting him the possession of Ireland. In 1169, English troops under the earl of Pembroke (Strongbow) landed in the country, which was soon partially reduced by the invaders, aided by the mutual hostilities and jealousies of the native chiefs. The country over which the English actually ruled included the four counties of Dublin, Meath, Louth and Kildare, and was called the pale. In the rest of the island, the native chiefs still maintained their independence. In 1310, Edward Bruce, brother of the king of Scotland, landed in Ireland, at the head of a Scotch force, and caused himself to be crowned king of the island; but, not being vigorously supported by the Irish, who had invited his assistance, he was defeated by the English, and the Scotch were obliged to return without accomplishing any thing. There still remained one independent prince, in the province of Ulster, whose daughter and heir having been married to the duke of Clarence, son of Edward III, that province came into the hands of the English in 1361. A parliament, held at Kilkenny in 1367, forbade intermarriages with the Irish, the use of their language, &c., under severe penalties,and thus contributed to widen the distinction between the two nations, which it should have been the policy of the English government to amalgamate. In the reign of Henry VI, Richard, duke of York, was appointed chiet governor; and an attachment to his descendants continued to influence the Anglo-Irish during the reign of Henry VII, as appears in the affair of Lambert Simnel. In his reign (1495) was passed

Poyning's act (so called from sir Edward Poyning, lord-deputy of Ireland), which provided that all former laws passed in England should be in force in Ireland, and that no Irish parliament should be held without previously stating the reasons on account of which it was to be summoned, and the laws which it was intended to enact. When Henry VIII, in the 16th century, embraced the reformation, the Irish continued to adhere to the Catholic religion. But, in 1541, Henry received from the Irish parliament the title of king of Ireland, instead of lord, which he had before borne, as a vassal of the pope. The monasteries were suppressed, the tribute to the papal see abolished, and, to reward the chieftains for their submission, O'Neil, O'Brien and De Burgo were created earls; they were the oldest peers of Irish descent. Under Edward VI, the deputy proposed to the Irish parliament the adoption of the reformation. Three archbishops and 17 bishops left the assembly; most of the clergy fled the country, and those of the lower clergy who remained, being deprived of their incomes, lived on the charity of their parishioners. Elizabeth, in 1560, caused the measures adopted in the reign of Mary to be abrogated, and replaced every thing on its former footing. She endeavored to improve the condition of Ireland, and employed able men to effect her purposes, yet her reign was marked by a series of risings, which finally terminated in a general war against England, usually called the rebellion. O'Neil, earl of Tyrone, instigated by the pope, and supported by the Spaniards, was the leader in this war, which, though successfully begun, ended with the reduction of the whole island (1603). In 1613, the first national parliament was held in Ireland; but of 226 members of the house of commons, 125 were Protestants, and the upper house consisted of 25 Protestant bishops and 25 temporal lords, of whom but few were Catholics. The reign of James (1603-25) was, on the whole, favorable to Ireland; the arbitrary power of some of the chieftains was restrained, the administration of justice improved, &c.; but religious troubles were occasioned by the disabilities to which the Catholics were subjected. On the accession of Charles I, Wentworth, afterwards earl Strafford, was appointed lord-lieutenant; and his administration was beneficial to the country. But the republican inclinations of the English residents, the hate which existed between them and the Irish Catholics, the influence of the Irish clergy, who were

educated in foreign countries, with other circumstances, led to an attempt to shake off the English yoke. Dr. Lingard says of this insurrection, that it has been usual for writers to paint the atrocities of the natives and to omit those of their opponents, but that revolting barbarities are equally recorded of both, and that if among the one there were monsters who thirsted for blood, there were among the others those who had long been accustomed to deem the life of a mere Irishman beneath their notice. After the death of Charles, Cromwell was appointed lieutenant of Ireland, and, with his usual energy and promptitude, but with great cruelty, soon reduced the whole country. All the possessions of the Catholics were confiscated, about 20,000 Irish were sold as slaves in America, and 40,000 entered into foreign service, to escape the severity of the conqueror. Charles II restored the fourth part of the confiscated estates to the Irish, and James II appointed Tyrconnel, a Catholic, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and filled the parliament with Catholics. But the battle of the Boyne (1689) restored the Protestant ascendency. William proscribed the adherents of James, and confiscated their estates. Great numbers of the Irish entered the French army, and it has been computed that 450,000 fell in the French service, from 1691 to 1745. The dependence of the Irish parliament on the English next became a subject of controversy, and in 1719 was passed an act declaring that the British parliament had full power to make laws binding the people of Ireland. The Irish trade and industry were also subject to every kind of restriction and discouragement; and it was not until the American war broke out, that a change became perceptible in the conduct and language of the British government towards Ireland. The Irish parliament demanded free trade, but the nation went much further; and, in 1782, the parliament of Ireland was placed on the same footing with that of England. The French revolution was another occasion which encouraged the Irish to attempt to obtain new concessions. An association was accordingly formed, under the name of the United Irishmen, the secret object of which has been asserted to be the establishment of an independent republic. The Catholics also held a convention, in 1792, and obtained the removal of some grievances of which they complained. As the troubles continued, the habeas corpus act was suspended in 1796. The leaders of the Irish union