towns were also named after him. St Aid-an of Iona and Lind'-is-farne, and St Is'-i-dore, Bishop of Seville, St Ou'-en or Au-do-e'-nus of Rouen, St Bede in Durham, and St Il-defon'-sus of To-le'-do, all flourished, and many of them wrote, in this century. CHAPTER II. THE eighth century witnessed the conversion of Germany by St Bon'-i-face, from Britain, called the Apostle of Germany, who sealed the truths which he announced with his blood. Carl'-o-man, brother to Pepin, the founder of the first race of French kings, became a religious in St Benedict's monastery of Monte Cassino, and died in the odour of sanctity.1 Wit'-i-kind, Prince of the Saxons, and his people, embraced Christianity. The Popes during this time were labouring for the edification of the faithful. The dedication of the Pan-the'-on at Rome, A.D. 607, consecrated by Pope Boniface III. to the blessed Virgin and all the martyrs, was established a century later by Gregory III., as the festival of All Saints. St Bennet of An-i-an brought back monastic discipline to its ancient standard of regularity, which the unsettled state of the times had much impaired.2 About 747, the celebrated and learned Al'-cu-in, an Englishman, gave an impetus 3 to education.4 At his suggestion,5 schools were established throughout France, the University of Paris took its rise, and a universal wish for education was developed. St John of Damascus wrote in favour of holy images, and against heresy. Leo the I-sau'-ri-an, and the Emperor Constantine Co-pron'-y-mus, maintained by cruel persecutions, the opinions of the iconoclasts; but the Emperor Constantine, the fifth son of the Empress I-re'-ne, together with Pope Adrian, I., endeavoured to heal the wounds inflicted 6 on religion by convoking the Second General Council of Nice, at which three hundred and seventy-seven bishops were assembled from all 1 With the reputation of a saint. 2 Injured, hurt, made worse; in, not; par, 3 Impulse, push; in, against; peto, I seek. 5 Sub, under; gero, I carry. even. 4 E, out of; duco, I lead. parts of the world. After due deliberation, they gave their judgment in these words :- We decree that sacred images shall not only be set up in our churches and engraven upon the vessels of the sanctuary and on all ecclesiastical 1 ornaments,2 but in private houses and by the wayside; for the sight of the images of our Lord Jesus Christ, His holy Mother, the Apostles and Saints, disposes our hearts to remember and to honour those whom they represent. We are bound to render to them honour and reverence, but not the worship due to God alone. We may burn tapers and incense before them, as is usual before the cross and the holy gospels, because the honour paid to the image is referred to its original, and this is the doctrine of the Fathers, and of the Catholic Church."3 Thus this sanguinary heresy was silenced for a time, to revive again with all its odious characteristics amongst the so-called reformers of the sixteenth century. Pope Leo III. closed this century by crowning, on Christmasday, A.D. 800, Charl-ě-magne,4 king of France, as Emperor of the West. The memory of Charlemagne is honoured by the Church almost as that of a saint, by the University of Paris as its founder, by the magistracy,5 who admired his excellent code of laws, and by the army who extolled his warlike exploits. Both the Church and science owe him gratitude for having directed the bishops and abbots 7 to establish in all their churches and monasteries, either public or private schools; although, in fact, these had been begun as early as the fourth century. The learned Alcuin was tutor to Charlemagne. The piety of the ninth century prepared sanctuaries for the relics 8 of several illustrious saints-those of St Cyprian were transferred to Com-pi-ègne, of St Hubert, first Bishop of Liege, to the abbey named after him, of St Reine or Re-gi'-na, to Flav'-i-gny, of St Hel ́-ěna, to Haute'-vil'-liers in Champagne, and St Martin was taken from Auxerre to Tours. A great misfortune was now in store for the Church. Whilst Russia was christianised, Constantinople became schis 1 Ecclesia, church, assembly. 2 Orno, I adorn, beautify, decorate. 3 From the "Manual of Church History." 1857. Burns and Lambert. 4 Charles. Magnus, the great. Exploits, deeds. Ex, out of; pleo, to fill or fulfil. 7 Abba, father; hence, abbot and abbey. 8 Re, back, behind; linquo, I leave. 5 Magister, master. matic. Her patriarchs had often raised pretensions contrary to unity, and Pho'-ti-us, wishing to break with Rome, separated himself entirely from the Church; but, as a compensation,1 the converted Bulgarians repelled the enemies of the faith. In 869, the Fourth General Council held at Constantinople, and the eighth of all the councils, confuted and excommunicated Photius and his faction, and also drew up wise laws for the discipline of the Church. The demon of heresy thus confronted in the most important dogmas, attacked those truths which had as yet been undisputed. Got'-es-calc, a Benedictine monk, taught that Jesus Christ died only for the elect, and John Sco-tus Eri'-ge-na, wrote against the real presence. These deplorable errors have since been maintained and propagated in spite of the opposition and condemnation which they met with as soon as they appeared. Hinc'-mar, Archbishop of Rheims, A'-do, Archbishop of Vienne, An-as-ta'-si-us the Libarian, and others, have preserved many doctrinal traditions in their writings, as well as contemporary and past events. Several of these learned men were professors, and, towards the end of the century, Re'-my, monk of St Germains of Auxerre, opened a school of philosophy in Paris. Rome herself had more than once been afflicted by schism, when the Antipopes 2 disputed the authority of the legitimate Popes. This occurred still oftener in the tenth century, though without shaking the Holy See, or preventing the spread of the faith. The conversion of the northern nations of Europe took place chiefly in this century. Wi'-mon, Archbishop of Bremen, preached to the Goths or Swedes; and Gil'-les, Bishop of Tus'cu-lum,3 converted Mc-is-las, King of Poland. Bohemia was evangelised, the kings of Denmark and of Norway embraced Christianity; St Ad-al-bert preached in Prussia, and received martyrdom; and in the year 1000, St Stephen was crowned king of Hungary. In Spain, the Mohammedan Saracens 4 committed frightful persecutions against the Christians, and invaded other countries of Europe, and although the general ignorance which prevailed 1 Atonement. 2 Anti. against; the popes. Opposition popes. 3 Gilon, or Gilles, first a monk of Cluny, afterwards bishop and cardinal. He was an eminent poet of the twelfth century. 4 The name given to the Arabs of Egypt and Asia who followed the religion of Mohammed, and tried to spread it with the sword. led to much disorder and crime, yet in the cloister was found a shelter for science and letters, as well as a refuge for the persecuted, and for penitent sinners. The monasteries of Cluny, Font'-e-nelle, St Myl'-iere, and St Den'-is, renewed a stricter discipline, and afforded general edification. Greater authenticity 1 was given to the canonisation 2 of saints, in order to avoid all risk of superstition ;3 and in 993, St Ul'-ric, Bishop of Augs-burg, was proclaimed only after the most rigorous 4 investigation 5 of his cause. Me-ta-phras'-tes,6 O'-do of Clu'-ny, Flo'-do-ard, Leon'-ti-us of By-zan ́-tium, even Sui'-das,7, the Pope Syl-ves'-ter II., and Burch'-ard of Worms, prevented the surrounding darkness from enveloping 8 the Church. PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES. A. D. 1054. Election of Popes reserved to Cardinals. 1055. Schism of the Greeks. 1073. Pope St Gregory the Seventh. 1096-1099. Council of Clermont for the First Crusade. 1125. Ninth General Council-First of Lateran. 1147-1149. Second Crusade. 1179. Eleventh General Council. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. 1205. Twelfth General Council-Fourth Lateran. 1218-1229. Fifth Crusade. 1245. Thirteenth General Council. 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. 1270-1272. Seventh Crusade. CHAPTER III IN the eleventh century, the afflictions of the Church increased, and a Pope of ten years old was placed at her head. But by the singular protection of Providence, faith seemed more intense,9 and in the midst of wars and political 10 troubles, the papacy was the only power which was respected,11 so much so 1 Firmness, genuineness. 2 Process of raising men of eminent holiness to the dignity of saints. 3 Super, above; sto, I stand. Exaggeration. 4 Strict, careful. 5 In, into; vestigo, I trace. Simeon Metaphrastes, born at Constantinople in the tenth century. 7 A Greek writer in the reign of Alexis Comnenus. 8 In, into; volvo, I fold. 10 State or worldly affairs. 9 In, into; tendo, I stretch deeper. 11 Re, back; specto, I look. that when Hildebrand, under the name of Gregory VII, announced, in the year 1073, that he would overthrow every power which should rise up in opposition to Divine truth, he succeeded in righting the vessel of the Church. Towards the end of this century, the Crusaders 1 had made themselves masters of the holy city; and in 1099, Godfrey of Bou-il'-lon was chosen King of Jerusalem, and proclaimed, with due solemnity, in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. When a crown of gold was presented to him, the pious hero put it aside, with these words: "God forbid that I should wear a crown of gold in a city where the King of kings was crowned with thorns!" But the infidels 2 continued to harass the Christians; and a hundred and seven years after this event, they retook the city, and remain masters of it to this day. The Ca-mal'-do-lese friars,3 the monks of Grand-mont and of Vall-om-bro'-sa, 4 the Car-thu'-si-an, the An-to-nine, the Cis-terci-an,5 and the Font-ev-rault, orders calmed the tempest and encouraged the weak. Be-ren-ga'-ri-us, Archdeacon 6 of An-gers, asserted that the body and blood of our Divine Lord are not really present in the holy Eucharist, but only in figure-thus was the heresy of the Man-i-chees revived, and though Berengarius, before he died, with sincerity abandoned this error, which was repressed for the time; yet the seed had been sown, and it "reappeared when Protestantism revived so many exploded 7 and condemned opinions." Gui'-do, a monk of A-rez'-zo in Tuscany, invented the gamut, A.D. 1009. Ful-bert of Chartres, (1016,) Adh'-e-mar of Saint Ci'-bar of An'-gou-lême, Ra'-oul of Cluny, St Peter Da'-mi-an, Lan'franc, Archbishop of Canterbury, Theo ́-phy-lact, and Saint An'-selm, also Archbishop of Canterbury, kept alive the flame pure doctrine. of 1 From crux and cruz, croix and kreuz, the cross. 2 Unfaithful. Means here the Mohammedans. 3 From campus, the field, Maldoli, near Florence. Wars of the cross. 4 Vallombrosa-the shady valley-near Florence, in Tuscany. 5 From Citeaux, in Burgundy, in the east of France. 6 Archo, I rule; diakonos, a servant, attendant. 7 Ex, out of; plaudo, I strike with a noise. |