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NOTES ON THE LAWS OF PHYSICAL the elements of physical science, that it would seem that one could hardly expect to see their close FORCE. needless to repeat the facts, of the unchangeable na-analogy asserted by any writer on the laws of ture of the material universe, both as to the amount physics, except under strange illusions, concerning of, and the kind of forces, pertaining to matter, the kinds of forces employed in the economy of but for the enunciation of theories implying such nature. for

BY MR. J. C. DYER.*

of

new

of

THE wide acceptance of the new doctrine of the of It is an obvious fallacy to assert such close led me to submit a few remarks thereon. In the the natural forces, and of the disappearance of analogy to exist between the functional energies of first place, let us keep in mind that there are five one kind of force and reappearance of another living beings and the force of steam in an engine. kinds of natural forces continually exerted by kind," must be held as employing unmeaning or The distinction in the two cases is plainly seen by material bodies. Three of these are mechanical misleading terms. It is not that any of the forces reference to the two kinds of force called into forces, and, as such, are measurable by the known themselves can disappear, or be changed from one action by each of them; the first being a series laws of physics-viz., the force of gravity, of to another kind of force; but that the motions of organic energies that connect and sustain the inertia, and of elasticity, each being co-extensive generated by them may cease, or be rendered necessive motions through the complex structure with, and inherent properties of all tangible quite uniform, when the moving forces are exactly of the said beings, the other being simply the bodies. The actual exertion of these, by their balanced, by their action in opposite directions. elastic force that drives the engine. To support equal action and reaction, serves to sustain the In short, the term force, used in an abstract sense, this alleged analogy its authors should be enabled positions and forms (whether in motion or at rest) and without defining the kind of force intended, is to bring some sort of proofs that the vital forces do of the entire material universe; and it is only by worse than idle or unmeaning, because when so result solely from the chemical forces evolved in the observed action of such balanced forces that used by eminent physicists, it cannot fail to puzzle the living system; but which is not sustained by we are assured of the existence of material bodies. and mislead the younger students in the sciences. any known facts or deductions from facts. No Many theories have been propounded to account The author quoted frankly states that the dogmas" new philosophy " is required to teach us that for the presence of these several forces in matter; he expounds-" seem not quite so clear to the un-all organic beings depend for their existence on yet no real light has been shed upon the questions scientific mind." solar heat, as also on the due supply of proper involved in such inquiries beyond the fact that Considering that this city* is so widely distin- food. We also know that "the nutritive materials all these forces are found to be essential forces of guished for its practical application of the me- for sustaining life" contain a large portion of the bodies exerting them. The two first are di-chanical and chemical sciences, it would reflect carbon in the forms of gelatine, fibrine, saccharectly as the quantity of matter, and the third or much discredit on the community for us to be un-rine, starch, adepose, and other analogous bodies elastic force varying in degrees of action accord- able to comprehend the simple elements of the in common food; but these facts afford no explaing to the condition of bodies as solids, liquids, natural forces, so largely guided by our hands. nation as to the origin, development, and final gases, or vapours. I have elsewhere aimed to Hence, a few words seem called for, to distinguish decay of "Nature's living progeny." show that a pervading " calorific element" consti- the several forces, acting conjointly or separately; tutes the essence, or is the source, of the elastic and to protest against their being confounded toforces in all ponderable bodies-a question here gether as an abstract entity to be conservated. passed by. There seems no ground for asserting any new disBesides the above mechanical forces, we have to coveries relating to the natural forces; yet a consider the two other forces, namely, the che-boundless field lies before us for new applications mical and vital forces. The affinities and repulsions of the component parts of matter, by which its mutations are affected, constitute the chemical forces. These forces are of varying and complex intensities, and are still but vaguely understood even by our most able practical chomists; yet the reality of such forces is extensively evidenced to our senses, though they are seldom such as can be distinctly measured like the mechanical forces. With respect to the vital forces, they are of a still more complex and recondite nature, and we must be content in our present state of knowledge to place these forces among the many other sublime and mysterious laws impressed upon organic matter by an all-wise Providence, and which are not yet placed within the range of man's mental vision. We simply know that the vital forces are, in part, controlled by the will, and a greater portion of them are called into action by organic stimulants; and since both kinds of action cease with death, they are properly treated as vital forces. Whilst we know not how the vital forces control the mechanical and chemical forces exerted in and by living beings, there is no lack of proof that they do not in fact command the other forces exerted through organic nature.

of those forces, to the ever expanding and varying
uses of man.

In addition to the before-mentioned fallacies of including all physical forces under one head, and treating them as an abstract entity, it is assumed by the new philosophy that vast mechanical forces are continually exerted by special natural agencies which hitherto have not been known to exert or to possoss this kind of force in any degree. To sustain this assumption, its authors have not been able to adduce any facts, or even analogies, in known phenomena to prove or render probable the exertion of such forces, as, for instance, the alleged mechanical forces of the solar rays when they are intercepted by aqueous vapour in the air, and the like forces assumed to be in continuous action by and among the agitated atoms and molocules, or the ultimate particles of tangible bodies, and thus by their internal motions tending to change or to restore their sizes and forms when the bodies are altered in either by external forces. Now, considering that such ultimate particles called "atoms" and "molecules" are not discoverable by any analysis of or known mutations of matter, to assert the exertion of such invisible moving forces as apart from the tangible matter I shall here cite an eloquent passage from an exerting those forces, is clearly a gratuitous essay (given in a popular journal, "Once a Week," assumption, unwarranted by any known properfor 13th October, 1865), by one of the most able ties of material bodies. With respect to the solar exponents of what is called the "New Phi-rays, we have many striking evidences of their losophy," as follows, namely:-"The great phi- chemical action in terrestrial phenomena; but no losophical doctrine of the present era of science, proof whatever has yet been adduced to show as the conservation of energy has been worthily their mechanical force or action upon tangible styled-teaches us that the activity which we see bodies, unless their impinging on the optic nerves, manifested in all the natural forces is a constant giving the sensation of light, may be held to be a quantity, or, in other words, that there is a definite mechanical action; but even if this be so, the amount of force distributed through nature, which force exerted can be but slight. Wherefore these is invariable in amount, and which we can neither newly discovered forces must "vanish into air, add to nor take from, but whilst the force in one into thin air." form disappears, it reappears in another form. From the same high authority (before named), But what do we mean by the term force? The after giving a brilliant exposition of "the source simplest definition of the torm is that which of the solar rays," or, as it is termed, "the describes it as something which produces or resists motion. When we think of force we think of something moving or moved." This definition of the term force would be unexceptionable, if what is called force be held simply as indicating the properties of the bodies in which it acts, and not as a something, or energy, existing by itself, as an entity, apart from matter, but as a part of it. Were it merely intended to declare that the sum of the mechanical forces, as gravity, inertia, and elasticity, is a constant quantity, just as is that of the bodies in which these forces are inherent properties, then there would be no grounds for asserting this fact, as disclosing a "great new doctrine;" for the indestructible nature of matter, and of its properties, wore physical truths known and taught in our childhood.

The relations of matter and force-at loast, as regards the mechanical forces--have been set forth in such ample detail, comprising all known facts, in

• Literary and Philosophical Society.

origin and sustentation of the heat of the solar
furnace "—and showing how the growth of vege-
tables depends on the solar influence, and that our
stores of coal come from plants, also that by the
combustion of coal, steam-power is obtained and
machinery driven, &c., &c. The author then
adduces the following case, namely-" From ma-
chine power we turn to muscular power. Be-
tween the steam engine and living bodies there is
the closest analogy. The nutritive materials upon
which life depends are no more nor less than com-
bustible substances which actually undergo a slow
combustion. The conversion of food into work
done is effected by the same process as that which
turns coal or wood into motive force." That we
must eat to live, and the steam engine must have
steam to work it, are simple facts that require no
comments; but the forces exerted to sustain the
movements of a metallic engine, and the living
organisms, are so widely different in the two cases

* Manchester,

The vital forces, from the first germ to the close of life, exhibit in a clear plan a train of connected and harmonious action in guiding and controlling the chemical and mechanical forces that are exerted in carrying on the functional powers of life-showing that the vital force was adapted to and designed to control the others. The marvellous energy of the heart far exceeds the force of any hydraulic engine of the like size; the forces exerted by the peristaltic and other internal muscles, as also the chemical forces acting through the lungs, stomach, and general circulations, are alike inexplicable upon any theory however ingenious, of slow combustion or of machine power. Although the term vital force may be somewhat vague, it seems to point out the special energies that originate organic forms, and to multiply and expand them by a series of spontaneous actions from the seeds and ova to build up the living structures of plants and animals, and upon the attainment of their maturity the subsidence of those energies commence, nor can any intrinsic aid or stimuli prevent their extinction at the appointed time.

If the term force be made to include those exerted by the vital organs, and if the conservation of such forces be a practical reality, then the living energies need never to "fade away and expire except through the wilful neglect of the conservative doctors. I will here add, in the words of a profound thinker, that, in organic life, “every train of development exhibits in its course an adherence to plan which can only have its ground in an internal vital destination. It exhibits at the same time an independence of all external influences which testifies to the internally given force of vitality.' It must be observed that these comments on vital forces relate solely to those functional energies that produce physical action, and which are quite apart from the "moral and intellectual forces" exerted externally by sentient beings upon each other-a subject of wider and far higher nature than any of mere physical action.

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I venture to recommend a careful perusal of the learned and eloquent essay (in "Once a Week") before quoted, in order to a clear and full comprehension of what is called "the great philosophical doctrine of the present era of science." All know that in the act of breathing, the carbon in the blood is convorted into its acid form, whereby the heat of warm-blooded animals is mostly kept up. This process is properly enough termed combustion. It is alike known that in the act of digestion all sorts of food taken into the stomach are decomposed and converted into one uniform fluid (chyle), which process bears no resemblance whatever to that of combustion; yet it is equally certain that animal life depends as strictly upon the digestion of food as upon healthful respiration. Indeed, those chemical powers of the stomach are even more hidden and wonderful than the mechanical energy of the heart before noticed.

By the experiments of Dr. Beaumont, in the well-known case of the Canadian soldier's (St. Andre's) stomach, it was clearly proved that the many kinds of animal and vegetable food taken were dissolved and converted into a semi-fluid of

* Ray Society's Bot. and Phys. Memoirs, 1863.

one uniform substance in the course of about two to four hours, by the juice or fluid secreted by the epigastrium, the secretions following in succession and laying hold of the morsels of food as they were swallowed. The secreted liquor (gastric juice) has never been formed in any other than "Nature's laboratory," nor has the chemist ever been able to discover the nature or constituents of this general solvent. How puerile, then, to talk of the analogy of these vital forces with those of slow combustion.

In conclusion, let me add that I make no pretence to any novelty in what is above said relating to the laws of force, but merely to have noticed some of the new principles and views that appear to be wholly untenable under every known law. To treat fully the many physical questions connected with the natural forces, and especially those of the vital forces, would demand (in place of a few pages) a work of ample size and labour, without exhausting the inquiries concerning obscure phenomena.

SCIENCE AND ART.

nor does a straight and level piece of line require sufficient the aid of the mid-rail to obtain a amount of haulage power. of railroads has received numerous modifications During the last ten years the permanent way and alterations, and many principles have been tested with a view to arrive at the best form of rail, the best description of joint, and, in fact, the most eligible arrangement of the tout ensemble. The very steep inclines, which it has been impossible to avoid in making lines in mountainous districts, have had a great influence in altering the rail from its original size and weight. The effect of a severe gradient is to tax the two special qualities of a rail to the utmost. It calls durability with extreme severity. forth its capabilities with respect to strength and In ascending steep slopes a certain amount of weight is necessary to obtain adhesion, and in descending them the action of powerful brakes is required to bring the train to rest. Anyone may be convinced of the tremendous wear and tear induced upon the head of the rail by the continued use of the brake by observing how the metals at a station are worn, in comparison with those at some distance from them along the line. About three years of ordinarily heavy traffic will place a rail hors de combat, but there are abundance of instances where half this period will suffice, on very heavily worked portions THE Art in drawing, of in rail, HE Science and Art Department have issued of line, to render them unserviceable. In order to painting, and modelling, executed in schools of combined with greater strength and rigidity, the art, night classes, and schools for the labouring use of Bessemer steel rail is rapidly spreading, poor. They are as follow:-As respects schools both among ourselves and on the Continent. Their for the children of the labouring poor, 788 schools tenacity is 65 per cent. above that of ordinary iron, were examined, being an increase of 200 on the and their rigidity and elasticity are commensurately number examined in 1867; 87,300 exercisos superior, and so soon as the quality can be unmisworked by 58,000 children were examined, being takably guaranteed, the only objection to their universal employment will be removed. It is the an increase in the year of 17,300 exercises and difficulty of ensuring this uniformity in their manu15,106 children. As respects schools of art and facture that has caused them hitherto to be so high night classes, the number examined in 1868 was in price. The double requisition of strength and 204, being 38 more than in 1867; 8,500 students hardness that is to be bestowed upon a rail before worked 16,700 exercises, an increase during the it can be considered fit for its duty led engineers year of 1,700 students and 4,200 worked papers. to attempt to accomplish the purpose by steeling 152 of these schools and classes sent up for exami- or case-hardening the upper surface, and also by nation 51,000 drawings executed by 8,000 students actually substituting that material for iron in the in the ordinary course of the year's study, an head of the rail. It is more than two years since increase of 24 schools, 19,000 works, and 1,500 this plan was adopted in Austria upon the Sommerstudents. In 1867, out of 44 candidates examined there, and the head is of steel, while the flange is ing line. The contractor's or Vignoles's rail is used for the third grade, or art teacher's certificate, 15 of iron. So much success has attended this experiwere successful. In February, 1868, 62 candi- ment that the same description of rails has been dates were examined, and 25 succeeded in passing laid down upon the the Brenner line, recently the required examinations. Finally, the results opened for traffic. At the same time, the application show a total increase in twelve months of 240 of this method of soldering steel and iron must schools examined, 18,306 candidates, and 40,500 receive a trial upon a more extended scale before it works and exercisos. In 1867 the number of would be prudent to pronounce decisively upon its Three different kinds of steel may be persons receiving instruction in drawing from adoption. teachers holding drawing certificates granted by used for rails, including puddled, cast, and Bessemer steel, each of which is imagined by its special the Science and Art Department, was in public advocates to possess advantages surpassing those and other schools, 79,411; in provincial schools of the others. of art, 14,639; in metropolitan district schools of art (including those in connection with the National Art Training School), 2,702; students in training for masters and national scholars at South Kensington, 44; schoolmasters and pupil teachers, 1,651; in night classes for instruction in drawing, 2,553; in private schools, grammar schools, &c., 4,529. Total, 105,529.

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in about half the time, and in many instances
much sooner.
All the varieties of iron permanent way may
Firstly, roads carried upon isolated supports;
be reduced to one of the three following classes:-
secondly, those supported by transverse bearers
and thirdly, those carried upon continuous or
longitudinal supports. Greave's pot sleepers, and
Livesey and Edwards' principle, are examples of
the first class. They have been attended with a
good deal of success in some localities, for which
they are specially adapted, and are ultimately
destined, applying the remark to iron permanent
ways in general, to a wider range of utility.
In Egypt, India, Brazil, and other distant coun-
Con-
tries, pot sleepers have answered well.
tinental engineers have not been behind us in
turning their attention to the eventual substitution
of iron for timber cross sleepers. A Belgian prin-
ciple, the Mareinelle Couillet, consists of a strong
horizontal transverse sleeper of the double tee
form, carrying two wooden blocks to serve
supports for the ordinary rail, of whatever shape
it may be. Three principal lines in France have
afforded a fair trial to iron roads, and selected
the Fraisans system, which gives a total weight
per yard run, including rails and all fastenings,
of a little over two hundred-weight. The prin-
ciple of Lecrimer, which in many respects greatly
for eight years on some of the Portuguese lines,
resembles that just quoted, has been laid down
and is still doing good service. In Prussia the
Hartwich longitudinal road is employed to some
extent. It consists of a pair of heavy contractor's
rails, tied by iron transversals, which carry
them and rest upon the ground, the flange of
the rail having a breadth equal to half that of
the height. The same principle has been adopted
upon
height of the rail is made equal to that of its base,
portions of the Lyons Railway, only the
which in this instance rests upon the ballast simi-
larly to a Barlow rail. The system of Barlow
is, in fact, identical with that of an engineer, Berge-
ron, and so is the iron longitudinal plan that is
soon to be practically tried in Austria. At pre-
sent it is certain that these iron permanent ways,
which are based upon the transverse principle,
have enjoyed more favour and likewise
success than those modelled after the longitudinal
rigid roads similar to iron ones is the imparting
method.
of some slight degree of elasticity, not as abso-
lutely necessary for the safety of the road, but to
diminish the enormous wear and tear that would
be otherwise brought both upon the rails them-
selves, as well as the whole of the rolling stock.
-"Building News."

more

The desideratum to be ensured in all

WATERPROOF

PAPER
FABRICS.

OR GLAZED

R. JOHN THORPE, of Manchester, has patented MR. Jinvention which relates to the manufacture In Germany, the contractor's rail is preferred in general to all others, and is the chief rival of the of a novel description of water-proof or glazed paper, double-headed form elsewhere. It is true that it is which is applicable for numerous purposes where inferior with respect to the rigidity of its attach-liquid-proof qualities, or paper with a glazed surface, ment to the sleepers, but, taken as a whole, a per- is required, such as, for instance, for enclosing goods manent way consisting of the Vignoles rail laid or materials packed by hydraulic or other pressure, upon cross sleepers possesses a greater amount of or for ordinary packing purposes, for lining or coversimplicity and fewer individual parts than any other ing boots, hats, or articles of wearing apparel, and system of road. Both the Great Northern and the for other lining or covering purposes, as table cloths, Orleans lines in France give the preference to it. bandages, sheeting, tents for preventing liquid peneAs is well known, the Midland and Western Com-trating, or for preventing evaporation, or for making receptacles for liquids, or for covering walls or partitions, either to exclude moisture, or as a glazed surface on which to print or paint patterns or designs. paper, on one or both sides, y mixture of copel The invention consists to surface

THE PERMANENT WAY OF DIFFERENT panies adhere, as a rule, to the double-headed rail,

COUNTRIES.

Tcharacteristics and its own partientur, meting

every nation belong its own distinguishing

which is also much used in England. The bridge
rail is used principally upon the Southern railways
in Ireland, and also to some small extent in this of

of carrying into execution the principles of theory the Barlow, the single T, together with stones and or other varnish (ordinarily used to varnish wood) and science. Each country regards the adoption iron for the supports, have either failed to give and linseed oil containing litherage, litharge, or of any established system from a point of view satisfaction or been employed upon a scale too oxide of lead, to produce a superior quality of liquidmost in consonance with its own peculiar ideas limited to entitle them to the appellation of re-proof paper. The inventor prefers paper made from and national traits; and although science is uni- cognized permanent ways. So soon as the weight wood fibre, but the paper first treated may be varied versal and principles are absolute, yet between the of a rail becomes augmented, it is equally according to the quality to be produced. He takes abstract conception and the practical operation necessary to increase the number and size of the about equal quantities of copal or ordinary wood there is abundance of scope for the display of each sleepers, the former desideratum being accomplished varnish and boiled linseed oil, with which has been nation's individuality. It might be supposed that by simply placing them nearer together, so as to mixed sufficient litherage, oxide of lead, or other comif the different systems of the practical application diminish the span or unsupported bearing of the pound to make it dry readily, and the paper is to of a principle could be all referred to one source rail. If we assume, as the average, cross sleepers be coated on one or both surfaces with this mixture, or origin, they would, instead of exhibiting marked to be 9ft. in length and 9in. in breadth, and spaced either by hand or by passing it through a trough discrepancies, be almost identical. This assump-about 2ft. 8in. from centre to centre, the propor- containing the mixture (either hot or cold), and tion is completely erroneous. The whole of the tion of bearing surface actually obtained per yard thence between flannel-covered rollers, to render the railway system, the principles of its construction, run of road will be nearly eight square feet. surface even and remove the surplus mixture, or by even to the minutest details, emanated from our According to experiments and accurate records kept other ordinary mechanical means, after which the own country. There is a certain similarity or in Germany, sleepers of uncreosoted or natural oak coated paper is placed in a stove heated to about amount of identity possessed in common by all last, upon the average, fifteen years. By creosoting 160deg. or 190deg., and removed when dry. The railways, but each is more or less strongly marked or impregnating them with other preserving sub-proportions given above are capable of considerby the characteristics of the people to whom it stances they endure for upwards of twenty-two able variation, as for purposes the varnish may belongs. In some degree these differences are due, years. From the same authority we learn that be employed almost alone. After the paper is thus not to any distinct efforts of national skill, but to creosoted fir sleepers have a duration of about prepared it is liquid-proof and water-proof, and it the natural features of the district through which thirteen years, while pine and beech will not last may be used in such condition, or it may be grained the line passes. The Mont Cenis railway is an longer than nine. The lighter description of traffic or printed upon in colour for subsequent use as example of our meaning, where, owing to the local prevailing over the German lines, which have table covers, or for other ornamental or covering difficulties to be surmounted, special contrivances furnished the above results, is the real cause of purposes. were resorted to for the purpose of overcoming the sleepers lasting so long. It is needless to them. Manifestly, a flat country, similar to Russia, remark that upon our heavily worked railways does not demand those appliances and mechanical they do not enjoy so long a life, but succumb, arrangements necessary in a land like Switzerland, in the majority of instances, to wear and tear

FIELD MARSHAL LORD GOUGH is now the senior officer of the British army.

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MACHINE FOR PREPARING SLIVERS FOR
SPINNING AND DYEING.

N preparing slivers of wool for spinning, it is desirable in unwinding to take the end of the sliver which is in the interior of the ball and draw it out from thence to avoid entanglement of the fibres (as would be the case if taken from the outer end of the sliver), but in so doing twist is put into the sliver, which is objectionable. It is, therefore, desirable to remove this twist before it goes to the drawing box. To effect this is the object of the invention illustrated in the accompanying engraving, and which has lately been patented by Messrs. Busfield, of Bradford. Their invention consists in rewinding the sliver as taken from the interior of the ball upon a fixed or non-rotary bobbin of equal or nearly equal diameter to the spindle upon which the ball was formed, by means of an ordinary spindle and flyer, the bobbin being placed on the lifting rail and the spindle passing through the bobbin, so that the diameter of the bobbin increases in the same ratio as the diameter of the interior of the ball, or the hole formed therein by the drawing out of the sliver. For dyeing purposes a little twist is required to be left in the sliver. This is effected by having the bobbin either larger or smaller in diameter than the spindle upon which the ball has been formed.

In our engraving, fig. 1 is a side elevation, and fig. 2 is a front elevation of the machine. A is a ball of sliver which has been formed in the usual manner, and is now placed upon the table B to be unwound from its interior. C is a bobbin to wind it upon, which is placed upon a plate D resting upon a lifter E, which is operated by a mangle wheel motion G, to produce the ordinary lifting and lowering thereof. His a spindle passing through the bobbin and entering the boss of a strap pulley I, which receives rotary motion by strap motion J from another pulley K on the main driving shaft L. The spindle H is held at its top end in an ordinary bearing, so as to be readily removed therefrom for doffing, and it carries an ordinary flyer M, which, when motion is given to the said spindle, winds the sliver upon the bobbin in the usual regular manner by the action of

[graphic]
[graphic]

the lifter.

The barrel of the bobbin must be either of the same diameter and length as the pin upon which the ball has been wound in its formation, or the bobbin and pin must be of such relative diameters and lengths that the first one layer upon the bobbin will

take up just the same length of sliver as forms the inner one layer of the ball. Hence it will follow that the twist given to the sliver by the drawing of it out from the interior will be taken out by the winding of the sliver on to the bobbin. It will be seen that if a little twist is required to be left in the sliver for dyeing or other purposes, it may be done by having a little difference in the relative diameters of the barrel of the bobbin and the pin upon which the ball was formed.

for its aid

L

or other matter (manganiferous) so as to arrive at the point of carbonization and temper desired.

As far as possible the process is regulated so that the transference from the puddling furnace may be made at such a period of the coming to nature as will enable the metal after having been made thoroughly fluid and remained so sufficiently long to decarbonize in the reverberatory furnace to be obtained without addition of malleable iron or ore at If the proper the degree of carbonization desired. precautions are taken to boil and to work the iron well in a suitable cinder in the puddling furnace it will generally be pure enough for steel. At the last stage of fluidity, while it is yet fluid enough to run, and just when it is about to congeal or come to nature, it still contains about two per cent too much carbon. By transferring and exposing it, for three liquid state to a neutral or slightly oxidizing flame under a cover of oxidizing cinder, this excess of carbon gradually works off, and when it is worked down to the point desired (which may be ascertained by testing samples) it is tapped into ingots. temper and improve the steel or homogeneous iron, in most cases before tapping the metal a small proportion of manganese in some of its combinations is added.

To

It has been found beneficial to let the metal decarbonize to an extent slightly below the desired degree of carbonization of the steel or homogeneous iron, and then to improve and recarbonize the metal by adding a small proportion of spiegel iron amounting to about per 1 cent. of the whole. The carbon may, in some cases, be partly reduced by the addition of wrought iron, or, it may be, other malleable iron in any form containing less carbon than the desired steel. In practice, it has been found advantageous for this purpose to make use of scrap bars, blooms, or balls in a heated state, which are gradually introduced and melted with the fluid metal tapped from the In some cases, cast steel or puddling furnace. homogeneous iron is made by using ordinary puddle balls in combination with the fluid metal tapped from the puddling furnace, for which purpose it is found convenient to partially tap or transfer the contents of the puddling furnace just before the

the service, no matter how small, as it will be looked upon as the harbinger of better times. Suppose the investigating committee were to look into the regularity and legality' of the vast sums that have been expended, under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Steam Engineering, for tools, shops, and machinery in the various Navy-yards; an expenditure totally unwarranted, and only entered into with the view of turning our Navy-yards into manufactories of marine engines, to the detriment, not only of the Navy by foisting outrageously-planned machinery upon it, but dealing also a serious blow to the mechanical ROGERS PROJECTILE ANCHOR BLOCK industry of the country. Suppose the committee AND ROVE ROPE. should glance at that pile of iron and brass standing in the Washington Navy-yard-a duplicate of THIS invention is one deserving public atten- the engines of those useless nondescripts, the and valuable ships and cargoes preserved to their iron which cost over half a million dollars, and owners. The apparatus for effecting this has been which will as certainly go into Mr. Isherwood's brought into notice by the late aeronautical exhi- expensively-cultivated garden, the scrap heap,' as bition at the Crystal Palace. The Shipwrecked it at present encumbers the Washington Yard. Mariners' Society offered a prize of £50 for the For no one can be insane enough to suppose that best mode of communication with a ship on shore, any naval administration will hereafter be so foolor between two vessels at sea. With the view of ish as to order an expensive hull to be built only to be ruined by carrying about such a wretched obtaining this prize, Mr. J. B. Rogers, of 70, specimen of marine engineering. The Cameron St. Andrew's-road, Hastings, exhibited the appa-pump' business is, as we have said, a mere bagaratus we have illustrated, and we are glad to add telle, simply a little flyer, whereby somebody that he was successful. This apparatus under- might turn an honest penny. This pump was went over 100 experiments at the Crystal Palace, invented, and owned in part, by the late Mr. and proved beyond doubt that Mr. Rogers had Sewell, a former Chief of the Bureau of Steam solved the problem of the best mode for rendering Engineering, and is it not perfectly right and aid to seamen and ships in distress, and obtained proper that contractors should be compelled to for him the £50 prize. From the models and ex- put these pumps in naval vessels? If the owner periments we have seen, we trust this valuable of the pump oil its progress with 'palm oil,' does that affect the merits of such a wonderful coninvention will be taken up with the spirit it de- trivance? Then, again, there is the Martin patent serves. The details are admirably carried out, boiler and the Sewell patent surface condenser, and the simplicity of the drill is such that a few to say nothing of certain other patent rattle-traps, hours would make seamen and others thoroughly to which the Investigating Committee might turn efficient in the use of it. The invention consists their attention; but, after all, they had better of an anchor tri-fluked and hinged, so constructed confine themselves to the tools and pump enterthat it can be fired from a mortar. A block is prise; because, if they branch out it will take attached to the anchor, and a rove rope is fired them till the middle of next July to probe the away to the desired distance, and thus communica- patent condenser, boiler, and other little entertion is made at once. Fig. 1 of our engraving prises of the Chief of the Bureau of Steam En-metal comes to nature, and to allow one-half less or gineering." shows the compact way in which the apparatus s arranged for transit on shore for the purpose of Jaunching lifeboats or throwing lines over a ship in distress. Fig. 2 shows the appliance ready for use; A is the mortar, B the anchor in the mouth N treating puddled steel, raw steel, and puddled of mortar, with two lines attached and ready for iron for the production of cast steel and homouse in boxes C C; D D are wood caps or tabots placed in the mortar to protect the projectile from geneous iron, the material to be treated has usually been (at great expense) balled and shingled to clear The whole of the metal thus mixed, after being the effects of the powder; E is a grapnel for it from the cinder, and subsequently generally rolled thoroughly fluidified and brought to the desired point throwing over a ship in distress; F is a metal into bars, cut up in pieces and remelted. According of carbonization in the reverberatory steel melting box for powder, spare caps, and friction tubes. to an invention recently patented by Mr. John Gjers, furnace, may then be run into ingots. Or four or G is frame of the cart; H the windlass, which, of Middlesborough, when crude iron or refined iron more puddling furnaces may be employed to one melthaving multiplying gear, will wind in the whip is caused through the action of iron cinder or other ing furnace, and the entire contents of one or several line rapidly, if necessary, to pass out a hawser additional matter to boil and to come to nature, the of the puddling furnaces may be transferred before the which would be carried in the box I; J is the material is transferred under treatment from the period of coming to nature while yet fluid, and the wheel and shafts detached, which are by a very puddling even before the process of balling. By re-contents of the remaining furnaces may be transferred simple contrivance made to act as lever and car-melting or keeping fluid the material, it is caused to after the contents have got into nature, the entire riage. For use on shipboard the mortar anchor separate from the cinder and to attain an uniform contents of the whole of the puddling furnaces may quality ready to run into ingots. Thus Mr. Gjers then be melted together in the steel melting furnace. and pin boxes are the only requirements. melts crude pig iron, or refined iron, or recarbonized Or the crude steel metal tapped from the puddling have given a detached view of the anchor with puddled iron, and works it in the usual way in a furnace at the period named may, particularly when puddling furnace and causes it through the action it is desired to treat it in crucibles, be run into of rich pure iron cinder or other additional matter moulds as flat cakes, which, being broken in pieces, commonly used when making puddled steel-such may be remelted in crucibles (or in the reverbefor instance as manganese and salt-to boil and to ratory furnace) in conjunction with malleable iron come to nature in the manner adopted for making or with iron ore to form steel. puddled steel or puddled iron. At or before the stage called top boil, just before the metal begins to thicken and to come to nature, but before the stage when it is fit or ready for balling up, the material under treatment is tapped with as much of the cinder as cannot at this period of the process be separated. It is transferred into a receptacle, in a reverberatory furnace on Siemens' regenerative principle. It may also be run on to the open hearth of a reverberatory gas furnace which may be either on Siemens' regenerative plan or on the blowpipe plan in which gas is used in conjunction with a hot blast. The essential feature of the furnace to be employed is that it should be capable of producing a temperature sufficiently high to melt steel or homogeneous iron, and it is also important that the flame should be capable of regulation to either an oxidizing or a carbonizing flame.

We

block attached, and the two lines showing the grip of the anchor and the working of the rove rope by the aid of the block. Besides the Shipwrecked Mariners' prize, we may add that Mr. Rogers has received a silver medal at the hands of his townsmen at an exhibition held at Hastings; also a first-class prize from an industrial exhibition

held at Lewes.

MANUFACTURE OF CAST STEEL AND
HOMOGENEOUS IRON.

AMERICAN NAVAL IRREGULARITIES. HE Committee on Naval Affairs have been diTrected to inquire into the legality and regularity Here, in the reverberatory furnace, Mr. Gjers of the purchase of certain planing and riveting allows the transferred metal in a fluid state to remain machines, Cameron pumps, and tools and machinery at rest for a length of time exposed to a neutral or generally, by Chief Engineer Theodore Zeller, to a carbonizing or an oxidizing heat according as the U. S. N., now Engineer at the Philadelphia crude steel metal requires more or less decarbonizNavy-yard. In commenting upon this matter ing, the heat being sufficient to keep it perfectly the United States "Army and Navy Journal" fluid until the metal has thoroughly separated from observes:-"Our impression is, that if this inves- the cinder, which will float on the top, and until it tigation is thoroughly made, and the Committee has arrived at the requisite point of carboniztion to are not put on to a wrong scent by the adroit form the steel or homogeneous iron which may now Or the cinder may tactics of the Chief of the Bureau of Steam be tapped into ingot moulds. Engineering of the Navy, some startling develop- first be tapped or removed, and other flux (such as ments will be brought to light. But although oxides of iron and manganese in the shape of pure what has been done in pump and tool line at ores of those metals) may if necessary be added to the Philadelphia Navy-yard, is, after all, a mere assist in decarbonizing and to protect the metal. To flea bite, the Navy will, nevertheless, welcome the metal may be added a certain quantity of either any exposure of wrong doing in this branch of wrought or crude iron, of the shape of spiegel iron

more of its contents to run out into the reverberatory melting furnace. The rest may be allowed to continue working in the puddling furnace until it has thoroughly come to nature, and has become malleable, and the cinder has dropped, when it may be transferred either by shovels or in lumps and added to the fluid metal previously tapped from the puddling furnace on to the hearth of the reverberatory melting furnace.

THE LONDON AND COUNTY BANK. E have been so accustomed for the last few WR years to notice little else than failures and embarrassments in the higher branches of commercial enterprise, that it is quite refreshing in these dull times to record the steady uninterrupted progress of any undertaking. Amongst those which have lived through panic and disaster, we may name the London and County Banking Company, which is now in the thirty-second year of its existence. The healthy condition of this company is shown by the proceedings of the last half-yearly general meeting, at which the Chairman-Mr. Childers, M.P.-stated that after paying all interest to customers, and making provision for bad and There was also an amount of doubtful debts, the net profits amounted to £72,165 12s. 6d. £7,810 16s. 2d. brought forward from the previous account which brought the sum total to £79,976 This enabled the directors to declare to 8s. 8d. the fortunate proprietors a dividend-the usual one -of 6 per cent. with a bonus of 2 per cent., for the half-year froe of income tax, which is equal to 16 per cent. per annum. This arrangement still leaves some four thousand and odd pounds to bo carried to the next account. We congratulate the shareholders upon the practical success of their undertaking, which is highly to the credit of the directors and manager.

ABBEY MILLS PUMPING STATION-FRONT ELEVATION OF ENGINE HOUSE.

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