9,000ft. to 11,000ft.; of wide valleys surrounded Magdala. Magdala itself is a mass of columnar
by the plateau, at a height of 7,000ft.; and of deep basalt, with scarped perpendicular sides, and with
ravines and river beds, elevated from 3,000ft. to a plateau on the top about two miles long by half
1,500ft. above the sea. The plateaux stretch from a mile across. It is 9,050ft. above the level of
north to south along the main line of the Abys- the sea.
sinian Alps, and form their summit ridge, and they On the plateau of Magdala itself there is no
also extend over a vast area to the westward. They water, but there are several wells on Salamgi—one
are composed of sandstone, overlying a forma- in the rear of Fala, and another called Shamba-
tion of schistose rock, 4,000ft, thick, which rests koch, in the Kulkula ravine. The Magdala dis-
on gneiss. Grand peaks rise from the plateau, fre-trict, with reference to the Talanta plateau, is not,
quently with flat tops and scrap sides of the properly speaking, a mountainous region; but it
plateau are tolerably well watered, and yield good is simply a portion of the great basaltic mass,
crops of grass and corn. The country beyond which has been cut up and furrowed by the action
Adigerat, and extending to the great mountain of water during many ages. Magdala and Fala
range which rose suddenly like a wall from the are isolated bits of the original plateau, and are at
plain and terminated in the mountain knot of nearly the same height above the sea as the table-
Harat, divided itself into two parts geologically; lands of Fanta and Talanta, of which they appear
as far as Antalo the mountains were bold sand- to have formed a part. The scenery of this wild
stone cliffs with flat tops, surmounted here and country, where the forces of nature appear to have
there by truncated cones with higher peaks in been at work gradually, but with such tremen-
the interior of the mountain knot rising above dous effect, is most striking. Looking from the
them. Between Antalo and Magdala the moun- heights of Magdala, the lofty ridges and profound
tains are of volcanic rock-to the north an elevated ravines would appear very grand in their appa-
ridge crossed by several lofty ranges of mountains, rently wild confusion, were it not that the view is
to the south a plateau of still greater height cut by always bounded by the straight basaltic wall of
ravines of enormous depth. He described the dis- Talanta, which rises above them all, and has the
trict around Antalo, the mountain range of Wod-effect of dwarfing everything below it. The drain-
gerat-noted for its lateral valleys, formed by age of Magdala and Fanta, and of the Wadela,
ranges of great elevation running across the back-Talanta, and Daunt plateau, unite to form the
bone of the mountain system-the basin of the Beshilo, which is one of the principal affluents of
Lake Ashangi, and the district intervening between the Blue Nile.
it and the Takaze-the details corresponding in
a great degree with those given in the letters of
special correspondents with the expedition, and
published at the time. Mr. Markham thus de-
scribed the district drained by the Blue Nile or
Abai, and the scenery near Magdala :-A mighty
wall rises up, 2,600ft. high, and ends in a level
summit, forming the edge of the Wadela plateau.
With the exception of clumps of mosso and juniper
round the churches, Wadela is without either trees
or shrubs, the hills being covered with grass and
small wild herbs, the most common of which is a
bright yellow composita. The scenery is wild and
desolate, not unlike that of the interior of the
Orkney Islands. The south-western half of Wadela
is composed of columnar basalt, and is more level
and fertile.

little judicious care. At any rate, if the progres
of civilization unconsciously demanded some few
victims, we should abstain from wilfully adding to
their number. Mr. Tristram contended, at the
last meeting of the Association, that birds of prey
were the sanitary police of nature, and that if they
had existed in their original strength they would
have stamped out the grouse disease, just as the
Orders in Council stamped out the cattle plague.
The hawk, by preference, made sickly birds its
quarry. In Norfolk there was no moor game, and
therefore no grouse disease. But he would ask the
game preservers of the county whether they really
believed that their stock of pheasants and partridges
was materially increased by the destruction of
everything which they were pleased to call vermin.
He believed that the abundance of game had little
to do with the scarcity of birds of prey, and could
declare that in some foreign countries the existence
of numerous birds of prey was a pledge of the
plentifulness of game. Owls were undoubtedly the
game preserver's best friend. His most serious foe
was the rat, and the owl consumed more rats and
mice than any other description of food. So with
regard to polecats, stoats, and weasels. With refer-
ence to sea-fowl, he confessed a certain amount of
sentiment. No animals were so cruelly persecuted.
At the breeding season they came to our shores,
throwing aside their wary and suspicious habits,
and sometimes settling far inland. No one had
ever complained of them as injurious, as raising the
price of herrings, sprats, or oysters; yet excursion
trains conveyed the sportsmen of London to Lanca-
shire, the Isle of Wight, and Flamborough Head
for the purpose of destroying these harmless birds.
Each bird shot was a parent, and its young were
thus exposed to death by starvation. Could men
blaze away hour after hour at those wretched birds
without being morally the worse for it? We
thanked God that we were not as Spaniards, gloat-
ing over the brutality of bull-fights, forgetting the
agony inflicted on thousands of innocent birds on
our coasts, to which that of a dozen horses and
bulls in a ring was as nothing. Mr. Newton then
referred to the enormous demand for the feathers
of the white gull by the modern fashion of ladies'
hat-plumes, and almost electrified his fair hearers
by informing them that every lady wearing one of
these feathers bore upon her forehead the brand of
The Jidda river separates the Wadela platean
a murderer. He then advocated the legislative from that of Dalanta. The height of these table-
appointment of a "close time," to be proclaimed by lands above the level of the sea, along the line
the local authorities, during which the mere carry-where the Jidda divides them, is about 9,200ft.,
ing of a gun should be an offence. This plan, he and it seems evident that they were once a single
said, had been adopted in several countries, in- mass of columnar basalt.
cluding some of the most democratic. The ques-
tion was one wholly unconnected with party politics,
and it should be so regarded. If the present state
of things continued much longer, changes would
occur with regard to our fauna for which we should
receive few thanks from our posterity.

SECTION E.-GEOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE ABYSSINIAN EXPEDITION.
BY MR. C. R. MARKHAM.

But, in the course of

The region from the sea coast to Magdala, a distance of more than 300 miles, is one of considerable geographical interest, and the operations of the expedition have added much to our knowledge. On the coast, the great system of eastern drainage comprised Ragolay and its tributaries has been discovered; and old Father Lobo's story of one of the pleasantest rivers in the world, with sweet herbs growing along its banks, flowing through a country which has always hitherto been believed to consist of a salt desert, has thus been explained. The remarkable passes from the coast to the highlands of Abyssinia have been thoroughly explored, the mountain chains forming the watershed of a vast region have been examined, and the numerous sources of the great fertilizing tributaries of the Nile have been accurately surveyed. Besides the observations which I have taken, Colonel Phayre has completed a rough, but at the same time a most useful, survey of the whole country that has illness, which would have disabled a less zealous been traversed. Dr. Cooke, in spite of severe inquirer, has done much valuable meteorological trical Survey have completed the mapping of the work; and the officers of the Indian Trigonomeeastern portion of the Abyssinian highlands.

ages, the Jidda has cut its way down for a depth of 3,500ft., carrying millions and millions of tons of earth away to fertilize the delta of the Nile, and forming a ravine of marvellous depth. The sides ON THE NATIVE RACES OF ABYSSINIA. of the gorge have a scarped wall of basalt at their BY DR. H. BLANC. summit, with beds of white clay intruding in DR. BLANC sketched the character of the country patches, and numerous lumps of opal and other its separation by impassable mountain ranges, vitrified substances. There are terraces of broken from the burning shores of the Red Sea, and the ground about half way up, on either side, cor- sandy deserts, where the Daukili and the Adail responding with each other as regards height roam in search of more pasture-more frequently, above the river-bed, and showing that this deep plunder; on the north and west from the Savanna, gorge has been formed by the gradual action of inhabited by the Bareas, the Shankalas, and the THIS paper naturally excited much attention. water, over a long course of ages. The Dalanta Two paintings in oil-one of Magdala at the time plateau is a mass of columnar basalt between the from the foot of the Ethiopian basaltic rocks, to many Arab tribes; the vast expanse stretching of the opening of the attack by our forces, and the rivers Jidda and Beshilo, with its surface upwards the White Nile and to those almost unknown other of Senafe-by Mr. T. Baines, of King's Lynn, of 9,100ft. above the level of the sea, and about regions, wherein the Pagan Gallas dwell. Detailed the well-known artist, who had visited and painted five miles across. It is a flat plain, quite treeless, characteristics of the following great divisions of the Zambesi, were hung on the walls of the hall, except the clumps around a few churches, and the inhabitants were given, premising that the and served to give those present a good idea of with a rich black soil several feet thick, save the strange scenery of which Mr. Markham's where the streams have worn it away and laid bare Abyssinians differ from all other native African paper spoke. The part of Abyssinia, which was the pentagon-shaped tops of the basalt columns. nations the offspring of divers invaders, and that races, and present much analogy to many European included in the movement of our troops, said Mr. The ravine of the Beshilo is even deeper than that there never was, in all probability, a pure original Markham, is far from being the least interesting of the Jidda, the bed of the river being only Abyssinian race: -The Amharas, a name applied in Abyssinia. A series of mountains and plateau, 5,640ft. above the sea. This river contained by to the majority of the people, all Christians; the extending north and south for upwards of 300 so far the largest volume of water that was met Tigre people, dwelling in the North, and much remiles, form the watershed between the Nile and with on the line of march. Near the summit, the sembling the Amharas; the people of Lasto, who the Red Sea, and contain the sources of Egypt's sides of the gorge are perpendicular, and at the combine the best points in the two former; fertility. They are divided, with reference to base of the dark cliffs, the huge boulders of Shoas, each of those people being Islams. The their western streams, into three distinctly defined columnar basalt which had broken off, were Falashas are the most important of the separate regions-the region drained by the Mareb, by the exactly like bundles of tree stems. The N.W. side tribes, and are the supposed descendants of the Atbara, and by the Abai (or Blue Nile). The of the Beshilo ravine thus consists of a mighty Jews, said to have accompanied the Queen of Sheba mountainous regions have the sea comparatively basalt wall 3,500ft. high, broken by one or two near on one side, so that on their eastern flanks irregular terraces. But on the S.E. the basaltic have settled in the country under her son Menilek, on her return from her visit to Solomon, and to only small torrents flow down, which are dried up wall is cut deeply by ravines and gorges, which the alleged offspring of Solomon. The Kainawnts, by the scorching heat as they approach the Red leave isolated peaks between them. a peculiar people, have much in common with the Sea; while on the western side there is room for The lofty plateau of Tanta and Ambala-sieda, on Felashas, and profess a religion which is a mixture tributaries with long courses along deep valleys. the east side of the Beshilo, which correspond with of Judaism and Paganism, though under compulBut the Abyssinian high lands, though from their that of Talanta on the west side, recede for a dis- sion, exercised by Theodore, they for a time proelevation of 7,000ft. to 10,000ft. above the sea, tance of nine miles in some places, the intervening fessed to be Christians. The Agaws, another they enjoy a delightful climate, and are not so country being broken up by ravines and gorges. separate tribe, are of Galla origin, but whose favourably situated, with regard to moisture, as Two of these ravines, of immense depth, are manners are such as to have impressed themselves several other temperate regions within the tropics. divided from each other, at their heads, by a series favourably in Dr. Blanc's remembrance. The The part traversed by the British troops consists of ridges and terraces, called Thaddat, Korakor, Agaws were the mahtab, the mark of Christianity, of plateaux at an elevation of 8,000ft. above the sea; and Sangallat, which form a sort of irregular rocky but are looked upon with some prejudice by the of mountain masses and ridges rising to height of isthmus, uniting the table-land of Tanta with Amhara Christians. The Zalas are a separate

the

caste, industrious, and, therefore, looked on with contempt by the lazy and vain-glorious Amhara, but still, by the help of a stick, enabled to hold his own against several Amharas armed with spear and shield. The Waitos, another small tribe, is noted for their predeliction for the unclean hippopotamus, and, consequently, they are placed under a ban, though actually always obliging and civil. The Figens are a border tribe, cruel, and famed for their powers of incantation.

The Wallo Gallas, originally from equatorial Africa, were, however, before Theodore's rise, the most powerful people in Abyssinia. They invaded the country in the 16th century, not only subdued and occupied the fairest provinces, their present country, but often carried their victorious arms to Gondar and Tigre, and imposed their rule on many Christian emperors. They are a brave handsome race, and now that their great enemy is no more they bid fair, should they, burying in oblivion all internal rivalries and petty jealousies, once more unite to overrun Abyssinia and impose on the debauched and sensual Christians of that country the false creed of the Koran. Such, said Dr. Blanc, in conclusion, are the several tribes and classes that constitute the Abyssinian race. Taken as a whole, with the exception of the oppressed and hard working peasants, there is nothing in them to praise or extol. Beggars infest the land; the priests are ignorant and besotted; the soldiers the curse of the country. Abyssinians, I regret to say, are cowardly, adepts at low treachery, lazy, pretentious, and pompous. Naturally drunkards and gluttons, they are very abstemious by necessity, and their festivals are but low and coarse orgies. They have no literature, no means of recreation. Their conversation is a revolting incoherent talk, partly blasphemous, partly lascivious, and when they favoured us with their society, always ending in requests for favours. When we state that cleanliness is a shame, debauchery no disgrace, robbery, treachery, and murder glorious deeds, we have summed up the qualifications most prized by that degraded race; and if their timorous nature made them recoil before the daring act of murdering the white men their guests, they enjoyed at least, for a while, the idea of their importance, and swaggered full of pride before the few helpless individuals their king detained in captivity and in chains.

Mr. Rassam, whose heavy fetters had been exhibited to the meeting as a curiosity, was next called upon, and was most heartily received. He stated that he was not come prepared to read a paper or to make a speech, and he would simply express his thanks for the welcome they had given him. He had willingly departed from Theodore's country, but he and his companions would leave the Association with regret.

THE GOLD FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

BY DR. R. J. MANN.

Manch armed himself with a hammer and started he issued, the Professor formed the following
in the direction indicated. Having reached the conclusions:-1. That during the last thirty years
place, he saw a bright vein of white quartz crossing there has been a large increase in the number
the surface of the ground, about 4ft. thick; he also and membership of learned socioties, a fact indi-
found a pit about 10ft. in diameter, containing cative of a decided advancement of science.
fragments of quartz, coal ashes, and pieces of 2. That, classified into distinct groups, the mem-
broken clay pipes, and which was obviously an old bership of the learned societies has advanced at
smelting place. There were in the vicinity several the following rate:-(a), the Royal Societies of
similar pits. From these holes he collected fragments London and Edinburgh, and Royal Irish Academy,
of bright lead ore, containing silver, and also pieces decrease 9 per cent.; (b), mathematical and phy-
of quartz rock impregnated with gold.
Isical science, viz., the Statistical, Mathematical,
He rejoined Mr. Hartley, with whom he returned Astronomical, Chemical, Meteorological, and Geo-
in a few days afterwards. Extending their inves-logical Societies, increase 179 per cent.; (c), bio-
tigation, they crossed a large vein of quartz, and logy and natural history, viz., the Ethnological,
after twenty minutes' walk came to a rivulet with Anthropological, Linnæan, Entomological, Horti-
sand mingled with particles of gold, and near which cultural, Zoological, Botanical, and Agricultural,
were several pits spread over a space of two miles. increase 48 per cent.; (d), geography and ar-
To the north-east there extended a vast plain of chæology, viz., the Geographical Society, the
yellowish white limestone rock, without a tree or Society of Antiquaries, and the Archæological
a bush. The exploration was extended towards the Association, increase 3.73 per cent.; (e), applied
Zambesi until a point not more than forty German sciences, viz., the Society of Arts, the Engineers,
miles from the Portuguese settlement of Tese, on Architects, Pharmaceutical and Medical Societies,
the Zambesi river. A second track rich in gold Institute of Actuaries, United Service Institution,
was found here. The explorers brought back with increase 4.53 per cent.; (f), miscellaneous societies,
them fragments of very fine gold, of the value of viz., Plutological, Royal Asiatic, Microscopical,
200 dollars, which was extracted from one choice Numismatic, increase 82 per cent.; (g), scientific
fragment. The search was limited, from the fact and philosophical institutions, increase 149 per
that travellers invariably have a native attendant cent.; (h), national associations, increase 486 per
attached to them by the chief, Mosilikatze, who cent. ; total average increase 172 per cent. 3. That
has forbidden all research of this character. The there are at present upwards of 120 learned societies
collection of minerals had consequently to be made in the United Kingdom, having in the aggregate
by stealth, during the accidental absence of the upwards of 60,000 members, deduction being made
spy. The distance from the southern part of the for members belonging to more than one society,
Transvaal Republic to Mosilikatze's kraal was with a collective income of upwards of £130,000
altogether 224 hours of actual travelling by the per annum. 4. That it seems desirable to render
ox waggon. The district in which indications of the published transactions as complete as pos-
gold were observed stretches about 200 miles from sible, by the addition of a summary of the discus-
north to south, and apparently through a wide dis- sions which arise on the reading of the scientific
tance from east to west. Two distinct fields were communications and papers. 5. That considerable
specially spoken of as being unquestionably rich in advantage and economy would result by locating
the precious metal. The richest spot observed was several societies in the same building, the members
about two miles north of the Umzmerve river, the having mutuality of privileges, especially as
furthest point of the journey towards the Zambesi. regards the use of large rooms for meetings and
Herr Manch has altogether made two journeys into the common use of the libraries. 6. That the
this district, the second extending from March 25, councils of all the learned societies should annu-
to December 16, 1867. Very little had been pre- ally meet together to consider the state and wants
viously known of the district, and a considerable of science and the relation of such to legislation
portion of the road traversed lies through a hitherto and education. 7. That the relation of the State
unexplored country. Early this year Carl Manch to the learned societies-grants being made to some
came to Natal, and communicated the information and house accommodation afforded to others-
he had acquired to the Colonial government. While does not appear to proceed on any well-established
at Natal, he arranged to take back with him Mr. principle. 8. That the institution of a medal to
Erskine, son of the Colonial Secretary; Mr. Erskine be annually granted to distinguished merit ap-
proposes to explore the gold field, and then to pears, from the experience of some societies, well
pursue his progress far into the interior of the vast calculated to afford a stimulus to the pursuit of
continent, and endeavour to make his way down to science. 9. And that a united meeting of the
Limpopo river to its hitherto unascertained mouth. members of all learned societies should be held
The value of the gold discovery and the remark- for the presentation of such medals, and for the
able character of the discoverer are now amply re-greater encouragement to science in the Royal
cognized by the scientific men of Berlin, and both Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences, now in course
sympathy and aid will be afforded to him. Instru- of construction, as a memorial to that munificent
ments have been already supplied to him, which patron of science, who, with so much wisdom and
will certainly prove too strong for the barbaric dignity, presided over one of the meetings of the
conservatism of Mosilikatze and his people.

SECTION F.-ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND
STATISTICS.

PROGRESS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

British Association.

LLOYD'S STATISTICS.

THE Rev. W. C. Davie, on behalf of Mr. H. Jeula, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., and hon. sec. of the Statistical Committee of Lloyd's, read a brief statement of the recent progress and present aspect of statistical inquiry in relation to shipping casualties. Mr. Jeula observed that the casualties reported in the first quarter of 1868 were considerably below the average of the previous two years in number, although they appeared to be of a somewhat more serious character. The comparatively small difference in the proportions of the several casualties of the respective years would again strike attention, ranging, as for the most part it did, between 1 per cent., only in one instance reaching 4 per cent., and in another just exceeding 6 per cent of variation. Stranding and collision stood out pre-eminently in the percentage tables as the most terrible and numerous of accidents. Upon the whole, Mr. Jeula considered that in view of the gradual development of careful inquiry both in the United Kingdom and on the continent of Europe in relation to the character and causes of disaster at sea, the friends of economic science might rejoice in their application to a subject of such great importance.

DR. MANN, superintendent of education in Natal, and special commissioner of the Natal district, read a paper on "The Gold Fields of South Africa." It stated that in the year 1864 there arrived in the colony a young German, who said that his business was to take a little walk through the middle of the continent of Africa. He had, he said, been for some time pondering on this project, and had spent some months in London about the British Museum, Kew Gardens, the Zoological Gardens, and the BY PROFESSOR LEONE LEVI, F.S.S. Crystal Palace, keeping his eye constantly on his PROFESSOR LEVI's paper was upon the progress of main object. He had, however, no money to pursue learned societies, illustrative of the advancement it. He turned the flank of this difficulty by making of science in the United Kingdom during the last his way to Algoa Bay as supercargo of a vessel, thirty years. The Professor called attention to whence he obtained a passage to Natal, where he the number and description of our learned societies, was introduced by a German missionary to a mer- and to their progress, as a sure indication of the chant, who employed him as a teacher, in which advance of science. A scientific census could not capacity Carl Manch-such was the name of the be taken of the number of their members, many adventurous traveller-acted during a journey to men of the highest scientific attainments not bethe Orange River. In this way he reached Len-longing to them-many who had several initial denbury in the Transvaal, and explored the terri- letters attached to their names being rather the tory in various directions. During these excur- patrons than the cultivators of science, and many sions he fell in with a noter elephant hunter of the belonging to several societies. Yet the Professor region, an Englishman named Hartley, and accom- estimated that the total number of members of the panied him in one of his excursions beyond the societies constituted about fifteen in every 10,000 Limpopo River. He obtained much information of population directly occupied in the cultivation as to the district he desired to reach from another or promotion of science, while the resources of hunter, Mr. Charles Hornsen. Mr. Hartley and such societies amounted collectively to every £4 to his companion followed the track of the elephant every £10,000 of national income charged to through the high region which formed the crest of income-tax, such facts contrasting most favourably A resolution was adopted thanking Mr. Jeula the water-shed separating the Limpopo and Zam- with the time when Mr. Babbage wrote his and the Statistical Committee of Lloyd's for their besi rivers, including a stretch of 250 miles. On "Reflections on the Decline of Science in Eng-valuable collection of statistics of marine casualties, July 27, 1866, Mr. Hartley told his companion that land," and when the British Association was first and suggested that it would conduce to the proin following a wounded elephant he had come to formed. Having dwelt at length on the circum-gress of statistical science and to the prevention some holes artificially made in a mass of quartz stances attending almost every scientific society of losses if the committee could obtain and publish rock, where it was obvious there had been some in the United Kingdom from returns made by the amount and value of the ships and cargoes process of mining by natives in past times. Herr the societies themselves in answer to a circular liable to risk in the respective voyages.

DRAINAGE OF

THE FENS.

BY MR. G. W. HARDING.

ARTERIAL DRAINAGE OF NORFOLK.

and the rouble by European Russia, having powers, including the United States of America, 59,000,000. The franc therefore prevailed among for establishing an international system of ship the largest number of persons. As regarded trade, measurement, on the basis of the English system, In this paper the author confined himself to the while the imports and exports of England amounted the council resolved that the proposed system Bedford level, comprising 300,000 acres of land to nearly £500,000,000, those of France, Italy, should be based upon the metrical principle, inin the counties of Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Belgium, Switzerland, amounted to £480,000,000; stead of the English tonnage. In Spain the metric Huntingdon. Having remarked upon the scanty and those of the United States, to £105,000,000. system of weights and measures had been rendered materials left by history as to the period at which England here had a pre-eminence, although not so compulsory from July 1, 1868; and the last meetattempts were first made to reclaim this important decided a one as some might imagine. As regarded ing of the International Statistical Congress, held tract of country from the water, and glanced at a the amount of coinage issued, while up to 1850 at Florence, unanimously recommended the unitradition that this attempt was to be attributed to the issue of gold coin in England far exceeded that versal adoption of a uniform system of weights John of Gaunt, at the latter end of the fourteenth of France and the United States, it had not been and measures founded on the metric decimal syscentury, he passed on through the reigns of several so since that time. From 1793 to 1866 France tem. sovereigns to that of Elizabeth, in which a com- issued £262,000,000 of gold coin; the United As many as thirteen countries, including France, mission of sewers was issued, with the object of Kingdom, from 1816 to 1866, £187,000,000; and Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, the Roman draining what was known as the North Level. the United States, from 1792 to 1849, £169,000,000. States, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Mexico, Chili, Nothing, however, was done for twenty-three Since 1850, France had issued £197,000,000 of gold Brazil, New Grenada, and other South American years, when, through the exertion of Sir William coinage; the United Kingdom, £91,000,000; and Republics, with an aggregate population of upwards Cecil (afterwards Lord Burghley), the first statute the United States, £152,000,000. As regarded the of 146,000,000, had established one uniform was passed proposing a general plan for draining relative convenience of the different systems, it decimal system, founded on the metre. Seven the whole great level. A multiplicity of com- was a fact that while this country had been for more countries, with an aggregate population of missions were issued during the reign of James I., years labouring to introduce a decimal coinage, 68,000,000, had also adopted parts of the same, and so many disputes and difficulties arose that France and the United States long possessed it, while this country and the United States, having the king himself eventually became the under- while, moreover, for international purposes the together 60,000,000, had introduced the same in taker of this great work, for which he was to re-pound was too large a unit. In three, therefore, a permissive manner. In India the government ceive 120,000 acres. An engineer and workmen out of the four elements, France had the advantage, of the Bengal presidency recommended the adopwere obtained from Holland, but the work did not and that justified the congress to take the French tion of the metric system as the best means of proceed satisfactorily, and was eventually given coin as a basis. But the congress did not recom-introducing simplicity and unity in the weights up. Nothing more was attempted until the fifth mend the franc as a unit for all nations. Nor did and measures of that vast empire. As regarded year of the reign of Charles I., when a tax of Gs. it recommend the pound. As a step in advance, it international coinage, the committee had already per acre on the land in question was imposed for recommended a mode for harmonizing the different reported the result of the two conferences held carrying out the work, but no part of the tax was systems in existence, according to which we should in Paris in June, 1867. A report of the official paid, nor was anything done. Mr. Harding thus alter the pound to 25f., instead of 25f. 20c., as it conference having been presented to her Majesty's advanced by easy stages to the present times. was now intrinsically worth. Could this be done? government, a Royal commission was issued to Should this compromise be accepted? The evil consider and report upon the recommendations of was that it would cause a great change in all the the conference, and their adaptability to the cirmonetary systems; it would require us to lower, cumstances of the United Kingdom, and whether THE author remarked that the Fen drainage of though in an infinitesimal manner, the gold standard, it would be desirable to make any, and what, Norfolk had, no doubt, been facilitated by the cir- and yet leave all the existing units in existence. changes in the coinage of the United Kingdom, cumstance that the rainfall of the eastern counties Accounts would still be kept in different ways; the in order to establish, either wholly or partially, was very small; had it been as general as that of Ire- divisional coins would in nowise agree, and we should such uniformity as the conference had in contemland, or of the west of England, the problem would not get a good decimal coinage. The professor plation. The commissioners had completed their have presented itself under other and very much thought that the 10-franc piece in gold of the value labours and presented their report to parliament, more formidable conditions. It might not be out of 100d. (slightly diminished in their present re- but the same had not yet been published. A report of place here to remark how very little pains had lative value) with a unit of 100f. or £4 for larger of the unofficial international conference on weights, hitherto been taken to arrive at anything like an financial operations, the best unit for all nations. measures, and coins had also been communicated accurate estimate of the rainfall, there being no Such a unit divided into 10 silver species of ten- by Professor Leone Levi to Lord Stanley, and laid public officer whose duty it was to register regu-pence each would give also an excellent decimal before Parliament. During the year a bill was larly the results obtained. This important matter coinage, producing immense facility in education presented to the United States Congress for placwas left entirely to volunteers, and the records and great ease in calculation; then we should have ing the coinage in direct relation to the French, were, therefore, necessarily irregular. The throw-one unit identically alike everywhere, instead of the by reducing the value of the half eagle 3 per ing down hedges and extirpating hedge-row hundred units in existence, and the identity would cent., so that it might be worth 25fr. The bill timber had been often quoted as one of the causes be obtained not only in the gold unit, but in its was read a second time, and a clause was introduced of diminished rainfall; but before these causes subordinate coins of silver and copper. Allowing granting compensation for the difference to holders were discussed, it was desirable to ascertain, by that the International Monetary Congress had im- of the existing coinage and of obligations in the a number of separate observations, whether the mensely advanced the question, the committee existing currency; but the bill stood over rainfall over a series of years had diminished, and, trusted that the report of the Royal Commission for consideration, probably till the report of the if so, by how much. Woods were fast disappear- would recommend the holding of another confer- Royal commission was made known. Canada had ing; was it desirable to hasten the destruction ence for the purpose of considering the possibility introduced a bill to the same effect. Spain had going on? The establishment of water-mills in of agreeing on one common system of coinage, engaged to coin gold pieces of 10fr. and 25fr. The Norfolk had converted some of the local rivers into instead of the proposed adaptation of many systems. German parliament has passed a resolution in a long flight of watery stairs, with still water favour of a decimal currency. Movements to some between each little fall of 3ft. or 4ft. The effect extent in the same direction had also been made in Austria and Italy. The committee were of opinion that, in the event of an international coinage being agreed upon, it would be highly important to secure the publication of such information periodically and for all countries; and they would recommend the same to the earnest attention of the Board of Trade. expressed their opinion that the great object at In conclusion, the committee which they aimed was steadily advancing.

BY SIR W. JONES.

was that the land on both sides was occasionally inundated, and always swampy and greatly injured by water. The poor little mills which did all this mischief were generally obliged to use auxiliary steam power, and it would be a matter of easy calculation to estimate how little more such power would suffice to enable the rivers to be freed from

all their obstructions.

INTERNATIONAL COINAGE.

BY PROFESSOR LEONE LEVI, F.S.S.

REPORT ON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The

SECTION G.-MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

BY MR. WHITWORTH.

A REPORT was read from a committee appointed to consider the question of uniformity of moneys, weights and measures. The committee expressed their opinion that the only method of attaining the desired object would be the adoption of the metric system. They were convinced that they could not introduce even the decimal scale in the present system. It should be remembered that the metre was no longer an abstract idea or scientific conception. It was a definite length, the length of a concrete object, deposited at the archives and exactly This was a paper on the present state of the ques- copied in the standards within our reach. tion of international coinage. Having shown the time was past for finding out the best natural unit, PROJECTILES FOR PENETRATING THROUGH WATER. practical character of the question at issue, and the and we must be satisfied with what we had got, importance attached to it by the jurors of interna- viz., a unit really universal from its wide diffusion tional exhibitions, the statistical congresses, the among modern nations. The committee were chambers of commerce, the Society of Arts, and pleased to report that a bill to establish metric other public bodies, the professor examined the weights and measures had been introduced by Mr. respective advantages of either adopting a new Ewart, and had met with a most satisfactory reunit altogether for all nations, or one of the existing coption from both sides of the House. Public units by all of them, or a correlation of all the dif- opinion having manifested itself so strongly in ferent units. The first plan of adopting a piece of favour of the metric system, the committee hoped five or ten grains of gold as a new unit would be that her Majesty's Government would proceed impossible, because it would require a general re- further in the direction of introducing it as soon coinage of all nations. The second plan, that of as it was practicable; and they urged that the choosing one from the existing units was better, Government should without delay adopt metric In the discussion which followed the reading of and the choice would depend on the number of per-weights and measures in the Post Office, in the sons among whom the same unit was already in circulation, the amount of trade regulated by each unit, the amount of coinage of the same already issued, and the relative convenience of the different systems. As regarded population, the pound was used by England, having 30,000,000; the franc by France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, having 70,000,000; the dollar, by the United States, having 31,000,000; the florin, by Austria, having 37,000,000; the thaler, by Germany and Prussia, having 54,000,000;

THIS was a paper on the proper form of projectiles
Mr. Whitworth
for penetration through water.
being unavoidably absent, the paper was read by
Mr. Manby. It recorded the results of various
experiments made with the view of determining the
form of projectile best adapted for penetrating
armour-plate under water. The result was that
he recommended a flat-headed projectile on account
of its being less liable to deflection when striking
the water.

the paper, Mr. Bramwell agreed with Mr. Whitdockyards, and in the Customs. Abroad, the metric worth in his conclusion as to the form of projectile system was making constant progress. During least likely to be deflected, but was inclined to adthis year it was adopted in North Germany, and vocate the Palliser chilled shell on account of its Austria was preparing to follow in the same course. cheapness. The results obtained by these shells With reference to the measurement of tonnage, were very satisfactory; and it was a matter of the committee had learnt that the Chancellor of certainty that, supposing a shell to contain a certhe North German Confederation, having moved tain amount of energy, that energy must be more the Federal Council that the presiding power should effectual when concentrated upon a small point, be authorized to open negociations with Great like the conical head of the Palliser shell. For Britain, and subsequently with other maritime the purpose of injuring a vessel below the water

Professor Cooper stated that the process would be found valuable in altering the quality of steel, which was not of uniform quality when produced by the Bessemer process, and could not be altered by that process; but by the Siemens-Martin method the quality of any part could be regulated at pleasure.

line they should have a flat-headed shell, but out purposes, though not equally valuable for all pur-ter of coroners' inquests on steam boiler exploof water he knew nothing to equal the Palliser poses. He also thought the time would come- sions, a matter to which we have often drawn atchilled iron shell. In answer to a question, he said when the patents and royalties were all done away tention. Mr. Fletcher argued that the various his opinion was that in firing at an angle a square-with-when steel would be almost universally causes leading to explosions might be summed up headed shot would be more effectual than a conical substituted for iron, a change which was obviously in the one word, "neglect," notwithstanding the one; but the conical was best for firing at right very desirable. ingenuity sometimes displayed in the accounting angles. for the explosions which it was attempted to prove were sou He referred to the recent case innd. fwhich legal preceedings had been taken to recove damages for the loss occasioned by the defective boiler which exploded at Norwich about two years since, and suggested that if a few juries would follow the example of giving the heavy damages awarded in that case, much would be done to prevent such catastrophes. He proposed that coroners should be empowered to call in scientific and report their opinions; and if this were done a engineers to investigate the cause of explosions Government inspection of steam boilers would be

Mr. Hawkesley pointed out that Mr. Whitworth intended his remarks to apply solely to penetration beneath water, and there could be no doubt that for this purpose the flat-headed shot was best. Even this would ricochet if fired into the water at a certain angle, but it was not so liable to do so as shots of other form.

Mr. Cowper contended that in action the shots struck the plates at angles more or less acute, and, therefore, he thought Mr. Whitworth's projectile was the best. If it were only a question of penetrating a plate at right angles there could be no

STREET TRAMWAYS.

BY MR. H. BRIGHT, C.E.

THIS paper specially referred to London street
tramways. The author said that the metropolitan
railways had exhibited a striking contrast between
the convenience afforded

but it was very doubtful whether this was of fre- of conveyance, and materially aided inquiry into scarcely thicker than a piece of brown paper, but

quent occurrence in actual warfare.

The Chairman concurred in this opinion, and said he did not think two ships manoeuvring at sea would be able to fire one shot in a twelvemonth directly at right angles.

Mr. Hawkesley also concurred, and added that, as the shell was in rapid revolution when it struck the plate, every part of the edge would in an unappreciable time be brought into action and literally cut a piece out of the plates.

STEEL MANUFACTURE.

BY MR. FERDINAND KOHN.

which had been said to have exploded in consequence of some extraordinary combination of cir

cumstances.

Mr. Gregory preferred Government inspection beforehand rather than after the catastrophe had occurred.

would result from an inquiry by coroners' juries Mr. O'Malley did not anticipate that any good as at present constituted; as, in the first place, they had the most incompetent man as judge, and the jury were selected at the mercy of the parish constable, without any reference to skill. suggested that the scientific engineers should report independently of the coroner's inquiry.

He

Mr. Stark, the owner of the boiler which exploded in Norwich, explained the cause of the accident, which arose from the bad quality of the iron, and recommended every employer of steam power to enrol himself as a member of the Manchester Steam Boiler Association. Other speakers also concurred with Mr. Fletcher that explosions almost invariably arose from negligence; and one gentleman who had had considerable experience in inspecting exploded boilers, stated that he had never met with more than one instance in which an explosion had taken place from a cause other than the thin and defective character of the boiler plates, and in that instance it had arisen from the safety valve having been weighted so as to cause an enormous amount of pressure.

what the result of establishing lines of street tramways was likely to be. The omnibuses were London, and notwithstanding the increase of railnotoriously inconvenient and mismanaged in way accommodation, the fares of omnibuses so far raised. The London General Omnibus Company from being lowered had in many instances been Mr. Webster said an inspection of that kind by ran daily 600 omnibuses, each capable of accom- an officer whose great object was generally to make modating 26 passengers on an average. In con- things pleasant was likely to degenerate into a sequence of an outery as to the inconvenience matter of routine, and he suggested that every arising from an increase of traffic, the Traffic person using a boiler which was not fit for use, and Regulation Bill was passed, and the object of this loss of life occurred in consequence, should be Act would be materially aided by the establishment deemed guilty of manslaughter; and this, he MR. KOHN's paper was on the recent progress of of a system of improved tramways. He had long thought, would induce people to be more cautious steel manufacture, He stated that at the last devoted close and careful attention to the subject in the kind of boiler used. meeting of the British Association at Dundee he of tramways worked by horse and by steam power, called attention to a new process of steel manu- and he believed that all the objections which had facture, viz., on the open hearth of a Siemens' been urged against the laying down of tramways furnace by the mutual reaction of pig iron in the streets of a crowded city could be met. He and decarburized iron, or wrought iron, upon proposed that they should be so laid as to connect each other, which was known in France as the the great railway termini, so that they would be Martin process. Within the last year the process auxiliaries to the railways, and would not compete had been brought into operation in this country, with them. Further, that they should not be laid and he had now the pleasure of laying before the down along the great lines of thoroughfare, but in meeting a few samples of steel which had been parallel streets, and the tramway could be worked made by the process in the Cleveland district. by horses, which could be rapidly and easily broken The process realizes the old and repeatedly-pro- into tramway work, or by steam locomotives. posed idea of melting wrought iron in a bath of They could be so worked and applied as to relieve liquid pig iron, and thereby converting the whole the general traffic, and he believed that they would mass into steel. The principal elements of its prove of the greatest public benefit. The attempt successful operation, and the points which dis- made by Mr. Train some years since to introduce tinguish it from all previous abortive attempts tramways into London had created a prejudice were 1st, the high temperature and the neutral against their establishment, and there were also or non-oxidizing flame produced by the regenera- erroneous impressions in the public mind upon the tive gas furnace of Mr. Siemens; and, 2nd, the subject, such as that they would be obstructive, method of charging the decarburized iron into the and that they would be attended with much bath of pig iron in measured quantities or doses. danger. There was no foundation, in fact, for these These doses of wrought iron or steel are added to views. Tramways are used with great public the bath in regular intervals, so that each follow-advantage throughout the United States and ing charge in melting increases the quantity of liquid mass, and adds to the dissolving power of the bath, until complete decarburization is arrived at. The charge is then completed by adding to the decarburized mass a certain percentage of pig iron, or of the well-known alloys of iron and manganese, and the degree of hardness or temper of the steel produced depends upon the proportion of this final addition. Having referred to the works in this country which had begun to work the process, and produced various tables showing the results of experiments that had been conducted, he referred to the question of cost, stating that the materials for producing a ton of steel were estimated to cost £6 6s., to which must be added wages, repairs of plant, and royalties to both patentees, which would bring the prime cost of the Siemens-Martin steel to about £7 10s. per ton, precisely the same as the prime cost of Bessemer steel. Referring to the question of how this new process is likely to affect the progress of the Bessemer system, of which it seemed to be a rival, Mr. Kohn said that in his opinion the only influence which it could have upon the Bessemer steel was to stimulate and assist it, and widen the sphere of its application. The two processes working with different classes of raw material, could never come into direct rivalry. By working up the waste and offal of the Bessemer steel works, the crop end of steel rails, and similar material, the new process would assist in cheapening the prime cost of Bessemer steel, in which the waste plays an important part.

Canada, in the suburbs of Paris and Copenhagen,
and, to come nearer home, in Manchester, Liver-
pool and Birkenhead, and systems were under con-
sideration for Vienna, Berlin, and Brussels. He
had laid down on the map several lines for London,
and as an example, pointed to that between Hamp-
stead to Bloomsbury-street, Oxford-street, by streets
running collaterally with the streets now traversed
by the omnibuses. He should mention that he
did not propose to carry the tramways across any
main thoroughfare, as the carriage would be so
constructed as to leave the trams and join them
with the utmost facility. In fact, in case of neces-
sity, the carriage could leave the tram at any point
and join the line of traffic, so that should the street
require to be broken up for any purpose, a gap in
the tramway would not prevent the traffic by the
line proposed being carried on. A central wheel
would be used when on the tramway, which could
be lifted when the carriage was required to leave
the tram. The rail would be laid level with the
roadway, but bevelled to the depth of an inch, and
the lightest vehicle would pass over it at any angle
without the smallest impediment. The tramway
would be 4ft. 8in. wide, and the carriages could
accommodate forty-eight passengers, twenty-four
in, twenty-four out, exclusive of driver and con-
ductor; and the tram could be laid on the most
neutral part of the street. By means of brakes,
and a compensating system, the carriage could be
stopped almost instantaneously. He believed the
system would afford great public accommodation,
and would be most successful in a commercial
point of view.

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS.

THE NEW RUSSIAN RAILWAY. FT has been announced by telegram from St. Petersburgh that the concession of the MoscowJaroslaw Railway had been made. On Monday, loan for carrying out the undertaking. The amount Messrs. Baring Brothers issued the particulars of a to be raised is £1,920,000 sterling in a 5 per cent. stock at 78 per cent., with 5 per cent. on application, and a 10 per cent. payment two days after allotment. With regard to the railway itself the following statement is furnished:The Moscow-Jaroslaw Railroad, which when completed will measure 262 versts, or about 175 miles, is the shortest communication from the Volga, through Moscow, with the interior provinces of

Russia.

From the manufacturing town of Jaroslaw to the city of Moscow this road passes trial districts of Russia, and through Rostow, through some of the most populous and industhe ancient capital of the Grand Dukes of Russia, where one of the largest fairs is still held. The first portion of 66 versts, from Moscow to Serguewski, where the famous Troizki Monastery is situated, was opened for traffic in 1863, and cost Ro.4,307,881 currency, and the net profit in 1867 was above 9 per cent. on the outlay, from which a dividend of 71-3 per cent. was paid to the shareholders after applying a balance to the reserve account. In have increased Ro.40,000 in the first half of the pre1867 the not receipts were Ro.394,676, and the receipts sent year compared with those of the same period of 1867. The company has hitherto issued no bonds The Imperial Government guarantees both interest and principal of the Ro.12,000,000 metallic now to be issued for the construction of the 196 versts which remain to complete the line, and specially allots for

In the course of the discussion which followed, Mr. Siemens said the great utility of the process was that it would enable them to melt old iron rails and convert them into steel rails; and Dr. Fairbairn expressed his opinion that the process would be found valuable in producing steel for certain THIS was a paper upon the unsatisfactory charac- that purpose an annual sum of Ro.615,600 metallic.

BY MR. LAVINGTON E. FLETCHER.