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SIDE-ACTION BREECH-LOADER.

THE
HE gun we have illustrated on the previous page
is the invention of Mr. George Jeffries, of
Norwich, and is different to any other that we have
seen. The barrels turn sideways, working on a
broad steel-plate, extending across the under
part of their breech ends, which is welded on. This
plate works in a dovetailed slot cut across the action
to correspond. In front of this there is what is
termed by the inventor "a fork working in the
action, and the neck to which the guard lever is
fixed, passing through the stock. This part opens
the gun, and it is shut without assistance of the
lever by merely jerking the gun like the ordinary
breech-loaders. A stud is fixed under the fore-
end of the barrels, which works in a slot cut in the
fore-end of the action, enabling the barrels to move
slightly forward, and allowing their ends to clear
the face of the action. The extractor is worked
independently of the hinge or pivot, and is capable
of being pushed back with the cartridges. The
gun is reported to work remarkably well; a pin-
fire gun, which has been in constant use for two
years, is perfectly good and sound.

THE

ELECTRICITY AND TELEGRAPHY. HE manufacture of the French Atlantic cable, to be laid from Brest to St. Pierre, off the American coast, and from that island to the United States, has fairly commenced, and is being rapidly proceeded with, at the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company's Works, at East Greenwich. The portion at present being manufactured is the deep sea section from Brest, the core of which is being made at the Gutta Percha Works of the same company. Now that the work has been fairly commenced, rapid and even progress will be made until the completion of the whole. The necessary alterations to the "Great Eastern," required for placing her in a position to receive the cable, are also being proceeded with.

From a remote period of telegraphy, numerous schemes and patented inventions have at different times been brought forward for solving the problem of sending signals over a distance-and especially across water-without the use of conducting wires reaching from one point to another. The solution of such a problem must be looked upon as the Utopia of telegraphy, the mere fact of being able to dispense with the expensive system of land and submarine lines, and the only requirements being instruments enabling two operators at distant points to be able to speak to one another at will, one cannot otherwise assume as of far too visionary a nature for any one to dream even of its accomplishment. We hear again of a new invention to solve the problem, and accounts are given of its successful application, but we cannot but for the present accept it cum grano salis. Mr. Mower, an American, has invented some peculiar instruments for arriving at the desired result, and from some experiments that have been tried in America, successful results are reported. The scene of the trial was across Lake Ontario, one instrument being fixed at Toronto and the other on the oppssite side of the lake, at Oswego, a distance of about 110 miles. Messages were transmitted across from one point to the other instantaneously, and for a space of about two hours, no hitch or difficulty being experienced. The experiments were so successful, that Mr. Mower was about to start for Europe, where experiments on a larger scale would be tried by endeavouring to speak across the Atlantic. The secret of the invention is at present kept a secret by the inventor, but a supposition has been started, that the system of sending currents from the respective instruments into the earth is by projecting them horizontally without allowing any vertical deviation. How far this may be correct, we cannot at present say, but certainly more definite and reliable statements would be acceptable.

Some experiments performed by M. Trèves, an officer of the French navy, have had a successful result in proving that a steel bar magnetized by an electric current undergoes some molecular change whilst magnetized. The result was proved in an exceedingly pretty manner. The experiments performed were for the express object of discovering what action took place in a steel bar when electro-magnetized. For this purpose he selected two exactly identical steel diapasons, giving sounds precisely in unison. Each was supplied

with a small mirror, placed with regard to each that insurers have been arbitrarily deprived
other in two perpendicular planes between them, of any advantage properly purchased by their
so that when they were struck the vibrations com- premiums. A policy valuation table is published,
menced, and reflected a figure in the opposite by which each insurer can ascertain for himself the
mirror that always remained of a determined current realizable value of his policy for every
figure, in consequence of the metals being exactly premium paid. Finally, the audit arrangements
in unison. One diapason was left without any are based upon such a simple and yet effective
addition, but round the second was placed a system that policy-holders can verify the statements
powerful bobbin of wire, actuated at will by a cur- of the amounts of Government stock standing to
The normal their credit in trustees' names, solely for their
rent from eight Bunsen's elements.
condition of the instruments would be, in being benefit, and withdrawable by them at will.
struck, that the reflection in the mirrors, from the
diapasons being in unison, would be identical, but
immediately on passing the current through the
bobbin, exciting the second steel, and rendering it
The luminous circle that had previously been ob-
magnetic, the following changes were noticed:-
served as constant, was noticed to alter immediately,
form itself into an ellipse, and oscillate from right
to left with a speed that enabled the new vibratory
movement to be measured; this speed was subse-
quently noticed to depend upon the number of
elements used, the greater quantity increasing the
speed of the new movement. Whenever the cur-
rent was interrupted the normal state returned,
the fixed luminous circle due to the diapason being
in unison re-appeared, to be disturbed again on
re-exciting the steel. Having arrived at such a
successful result by so pretty an experiment,
M. Trèves has determined to prosecute his in-
quiries into the change undergone by diapasons of
soft iron and of steel of different sizes. These
results were handed in to the French Academy of
Science, with a note from M. Faye, that "this new
experimental method of M. Trèves had made a
marked step in the science of magnetism, and the
hope was raised that it would greatly facilitate
new researches that the science so little advanced
most certainly required."

In the French Academy, M. Delaurier, who is so well known for his investigations into voltaic piles, suggests as an improvement of the Daniell battery that the copper plate be immersed in a mixture of whilst the zinc would be in a diluted solution of sulphuric acid, water, and of sulphate of copper, sea salt. There is nothing particularly novel in the proposed arrangement, for the use of sea salt has been frequently tried, and to a solution of sulphate of copper sulphuric acid has been frequently added.

BRITISH IMPERIAL INSURANCE
CORPORATION.

WE

Unquestionably, the Government security system imparts an entirely new and improved character to life insurance transactions. It removes all doubt as to the want of security and equity hitherto attachas high a standard of value as Bank of England ing to life insurance, and it elevates life policies to notes. Under this system, policy-holders whether many or few in number, can at any time, if disposed, present the whole of their policies at once, and receive their full values for them in exchange. In short, the new system is equitable in its operation, affording in principle the best security for the fulfilment of its engagements. It peculiarly recommends itself to the public, as supplying one of its most urgent wants, in that it offers all the advantages of a life insurance office, combined with some of those of a bank, improving money at compound interest. All this is effected by calculating the tables on the principle that money can be safely employed for long periods of years to produce three per cent. compound interest. A higher rate, therefore, is not sought; risk is consequently avoided, and the conditions of the calculations are complied with. Dr. Farr's system is entirely original, and has, we understand, been highly commended by Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Cardwell, Mr. Stansfeld, and other gentlemen competent to form a correct judgment upon the question. The British Imperial Association has the countenance of the secretary of the Bank of England, the Accountant-General of India, and many of the leading merchants in Manchester. tion, that it is about to be established in London, Such, indeed, has been the success of this corporaunder excellent auspices. The paid-up capital of the corporation exceeds £11,000, subscribed in the Manchester district, and held by upwards of 220 in fluential persons. The novelty of the system we have been discussing, and the sound and equitable mode of conducting the business of life and self assurance adopted by the corporation, must procure for it that success to which it is entitled and which we heartily wish it.

SELF-ACTING STEAM STRIKER.

THE

BY MR. D. DAVIES, OF CRUMLIN.

E have just received the first annual audit shoot of the life and self insurance policies effected with the above corporation, which has its offices at 81, King-street, Manchester. This report presents features of an unusually satisfactory and interesting character for such documents. On object of this machine is to avoid the loss of time by strikers waiting for heats. Many looking a little into it, we find the Association to of the machines have now been in constant use for involve principles of science which are of the first nearly three years, and have given satisfactory reinterest to the community, and which justify a sults. The machine is so constructed that it will notice at our hands. The plan upon which the busi-strike at any angle inclined to the face of the anvil, ness is conducted originated with Dr. Farr, F.R.S., from the vertical to the horizontal direction on &c., the General Register Office, Somerset House, either side, and equally effective in all directions. and who is the auditor to the insurance funds of the It will work on any number of anvils arranged in corporation. In his twelfth report, Dr. Farr puba circle around the hammer. The machine is well lished an elaborate paper on life insurance, and adapted for all kinds of light forgings required in pointed out many serious defects in the ordinary bridge, ship, and engine work. It is entirely system, for which he suggested remedies. He under the control of the smith, who can regulate insisted on the necessity for life offices employing a by hand or foot the direction, force, and rapidity true life table, for determining the premiums to be of its blows. The space occupied by the striker paid by insurers-selecting the best security for is comparatively small, being about one-fourth of investing premiums in-adopting an intelligible that required for hand strikers when working on system of audit-assigning a value to each policy the same number of anvils. The striker can be for every premium paid; and the absolute right of worked either by steam, compressed air, or waterinsurers to cease their policies at will, on condition power. It will work upon any height up to 6ft. of receiving their full current values. These im- from the floor of the smith's shop, and as it can be portant considerations have found their practical raised through the same height in a few seconds realization in the Association whose report is now by opening a hydraulic cock, it can be readily before us. Under the admirable system here de-adapted for striking perfectly level blows on the veloped, we find that the usual practice of employ- anvil. The striker can forge shafts, bolts, &c., ing the insurers' money in miscellaneous and risky round without the use of swages. securities has been abandoned. In its stead, the The steam striker consists essentially of a premiums are invested in Government securities, hammer worked by a steam cylinder, either direct under trust, as the property of the insurers. or through the medium of an oscillating lever. The channel of investment is well defined before The steam cylinder is fixed or cast inside of a the insurance is effected, and cannot be departed horizontal cylinder. The two cylinders may have from; thus insurers have the best possible gua- their axes inclined at an angle to each other, or rantee as to the secure basis of their policies. they may be parallel. The horizontal cylinder is Under this system, insurers enjoy the absolute made so as to be capable of revolving in bearings, right of ceasing their policies at any time, and of carrying with it the steam cylinder and hammer. receiving back about one-half of all premiums The hammer by this means is able to strike blows paid. About 50 per cent. of the amount paid in any desired direction. The horizontal cylinder in premiums can be had at any time for temporary use, without cancelling the policy. There may be turned round in its bearings by hand, can be no lapsed policies, nor complaints

* South Wales Institute of Engineers.

efficient mechanism for controlling the sido valve,

which is necessary from the variety of blows required to be given by the striker.

When the hammer is worked by an arm or lever,

the hammer head is fixed on one end of the arm,

PROPOSED HARBOUR OF REFUGE AND
OYSTER PITS IN THE FIRTH OF FORTH.

ANOTHER METEOR.

IN Mr. Dempster's book entitled, "The Decked-ON the night of Wednesday week, Mr. Lucas, at

tido.

steam, or hydraulic power. The steam chest is at right angles to the axis of the steam cylinder, and in it works a cylindrical double disc equilibrium valve, connected by a spindle direct with an inthe Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, observed ternal link, to which the writer invites special welled Fishing Boat, Fisheries, and Fish the following remarkable meteor. At 12h. 44m. attention. The link has an irregular shaped oval Market Reform," he shows the method adopted Greenwich mean solar time, it shot out from a hole, in which a stud projecting from the piston rod by the French to cultivate oysters on the fore Pegasi towards B Ceti, which it reached in about works; the upward and downward movement of shores, between high and low-water mark. To five seconds. When passing a group of stars, the piston producing a lateral reciprocating motion better convey the meaning of plan, Mr. Dempster which include w Piscium and a Piscium, a little in the link, by forcing the stud against the inclined has now added to his little volume a coloured below y Pegasi, it appeared to stop for an instant face of the oval hole, moving the link with the lithographed plate, exhibiting a proposed site for and burst, immediately resuming its course and valve attached, and alternately admitting and oyster pits lift. deep at low water on the sands increasing in brightness, leaving a part of its train releasing the steam to the ports of the cylinder. abreast of Kinghorn, a small burgh town, situated at the point of retardation, which remained visible When required, the cylinder is fitted with sliding on the Fifeshire coast, on the north side of the for twenty seconds. It appeared white at starting, plates at each end, for regulating the length of Firth of Forth. What gives value to this site for and equal in brightness to a star of the first magnistroke and varying the force of blows to suit the oyster pits, the projector says, is in consequence tude, changing to green on bursting, and nearly size and nature of the forgings under operation. of a fresh water stream constantly running from equalling Jupiter at its disappearance. A very In addition to being worked by the piston stud, the Kinghorn Loch on to these sands, together with the small portion of the train appeared to remain for link can be worked by hand, so as to admit steam way they are sheltered by two reefs of rocks, one two or three minutes, but the observer could not on the east side of the sands, and the other on be certain of this, on account of the light from to the piston at any desired point, and give one or more single blows. The writer is of opinion their west side. The two reefs run from the shore Jupiter rendering the small stars near him very that the internal link combines the advantages of southward into the Firth, until their ends terminate indistinct; but some time afterwards he saw the a self-acting motion with that of a ready hand-in a depth of 12ft. or 13ft. at the lowest spring place which it had occupied quite clear or vacant. gear motion, and at the same time provides an The distance between the two reefs of rocks It may be mentioned that during the night sevensands from high to low-water mark. Mr. Demp- between 12 and 2 a.m.), and that at 9h. 26m. one is 350yds., that being about the extent of the teen meteors were observed (the greater number ster's plan to construct oyster pits at this site is equal to a star of the first magnitude and of a red 60ft. south from high-water mark he runs a strong colour, having a long train, started from a Draconis, sea wall east and west, from the one reef of rocks and reached the west horizon at a point near a to the other. This forms a reservoir to catch the Hercules in five seconds. fresh water constantly running from Kinghorn Loch. He then forms his pits, outside of this sea wall, into three different compartments-one for the first year's growth, another for the second year's growth, and the other for the third year's growth, after which time the oysters are fit for fitted to the floor, or on the head of a hydraulic or The compartments, of course, are surrounded pneumatic ram working in a casting. The hydrau- by stakes, hurdles, and trossel work to capture lic ram provides an arrangement for raising or the oyster spat during the spawning season. lowering the whole machine, and enables blows to When the ebbing tide recedes from the pits, fresh be struck at various inclinations, and also main-water from the reservoir is thon let into them tains the effective fall on any thickness of forging from sluices. By constructing oyster pits on the on the anvil. The upper part of the ram is made fore-shores, between high and low-water mark, round, to allow of the whole machine revolving on when the tide has receded from them, and the a vertical axis, enabling it to be brought to work sun acting on their shallow depth, the effect might on any number of anvils arranged in a circle. in some degree rarify the water, so as to make its The compounding of the various motions enables temperature advantageous to oyster culture. The a blow to be struck in any direction on the circum- bottom of the pits to be laid with shingle, tiles, &c. ference of the circle, of which the hammer-arm is The pits can be stocked with oysters from extenthe radius. The pipes for supplying steam to the sive oyster beds in the Firth of Forth which lies cylinder are cast or fixed on the upper or lower within the burgh boundaries of the town Kinghorn. side of casing, and to provide for the rise and fall The two reefs of rocks that extend southward into of the machine they are made telescopic, and pass the Firth forms naturally the foundation for piers or breakwaters, and Mr. Dempster says that at very through a stuffing box to keep them steam-tight. little cost an excellent harbour of refuge could be constructed here. Were that done, besides the convenience for shipping, the oyster pits would be completely sheltered from the sea breaking on the sands to annoy the oysters.

and the connecting rod at the other. A socket carries the oscillating arm, and is arranged so that it can be raised or lowered relative to the centre of the horizontal cylinder, to suit the various sizes of the forgings, and for enabling round iron to be forged of any diameter. The bearings of the horizontal cylinder are supported either on a bed plate

INDELIBLE DRAWING INK.

T has long been the cry of engineering and

I architectural draughtsmen that they cannot get

uso.

GAS IN SINGAPORE.

IMPROVEMENTS IN BRUSHES.

N improvement manufacture of brushes, Aventov byent in the my, of Washington, U.S., and lately patented in England, consists in rounding off to a blunt point the angular extremities of the bristles, thereby substituting a smooth and polished surface to the harsh and irritating asperities of ordinary brushes. The face of the manufactured brush is submitted to a grinding process, performed by a hard close-grained grinding stone, and is afterwards polished off by a wheel armed with bristles similar to those employed by dentists. The grindstone used in this process may be either circular or flat, a horizontal to-and-fro motion being in the latter case imparted to the slab by mechanism. For serrated brushes a number of thin V-edged discs or slabs, formed preferably of corrundum or other known whetstone composition, are mounted face to face on a central bar, or otherwise clamped together so as to present a corrugated surface corresponding with that of the brush, but this arrangement, when moulded ridges of the required depth and form. so desired, may be replaced by a single stone with The serratures being formed by this apparatus, the longer bristles are ground to the required extent on the plane faced stone in the same manner as the plain or oval faced brush. The polishing and finishing is effected as before stated by a revolving wheel armed with bristles, which at same time remove all the powder which may have accumulated in the brush during the grinding process. The improvement above described may be applied to nearly every description of hogs' bristle brushes, but will be found more especially useful in tooth, hair, nail, flesh, cloth,

SCREWING MACHINE.

ing machine, by Messrs. J. C. Brown and Sharpe, of Providence, U.S., and which is in use in many of the largest shops in the United States, and has given much satisfaction. This machine is suitable for making from bar iron all kinds of screws and studs ordinarily used in a machine shop. The makers state that one man with this machine will produce as many screws as from three to five men can make on as many engine lathes, and they will be more uniform in size. Nuts can be drilled, tapped, and one side faced up, and many parts of sewing machines, cotton machinery, gas and steam fittings made on this machine with a great saving of time and labour.

Indian ink to stand washing or colours, a stick of ink that washes only a little better than another being considered as a prize of great value. It THE Sing pro Casional notice, continue to pro HE Singapore Gas Works, which have given us will, therefore, be interesting to such of our readers who are so circumstanced to know that Mr. Stan- gress satisfactorily, the natives continuing to appre-horse, and other brushes of like class. ley, the mathematical instrument maker, of Great ciate gas lighting, against which they formerly set Turnstile, Holborn, has just introduced a new ink, their faces upon religious grounds. In the report which will prove a great boon to them. It is of the engineer and manager, Mr. E. J. Wells, simply a solution of re-dissolved Chinese ink, to which has just reached us, we find some anxiety which a chemical mucilage is added, which renders expressed as to the supply of coal, as rates ofE herewith illustrate a neat and efficient screwit insoluble after it has dried upon the paper. The freight rule high from Australia. Mr. Wells hopes, result is that any colour may be passed repeatedly however, that the English management will be over it without blurring or washing it up. We able to close a contract for a term of years for the have given this ink a fair trial, and the results supply of coals for the works from Australia, as are highly satisfactory. It takes ox gall and plain they have been tried, and give every satisfaction. colour with equal freedom, and will prove a great | The cargo which arrived from Australia in May desideratum in cloth tracings, inasmuch as it will enable the tracing to be coloured on the face, instead of on the back, as is done at present. This ink is moderate in price, and will prove economical in use, as it need not be poured out on the palette. The drawing pen need only be dipped in it after breathing between the nibs, therefore only the quantity actually used is required to be withdrawn from the bottle. We understand that it will not decompose, and if it thickens by exposure a little water may be added to thin it. Chinese ink being pure, finely-divided carbon naturally settles by its great specific gravity, so that the bottle requires to be shaken before use, and this is the only trouble to be taken. It is true, solutions of Indian ink are prepared by several artists' colourmen, but they are that, and nothing more; consequently, they wash up like the stick ink, and decompose if kept in solution by water only. On the other hand, Mr. Stanley's liquid ink is indelible, and possesses all the other advantages we have named, which will secure for it a rapid sale and the success it deserves.

last fully answer Mr. Wells' expectation; they pro-
duce 9,200 cubic feet of gas per ton, of thirteen and
a-half candles illuminating power, and 40 bushels
of good hard coke. The engineer reports that the
purifying by the ammoniacal liquor and oxide pro-
cess is all that can be desired. The oxide (Hill's
and Riley's), which was forwarded out in 1864 is
still at work, and to all appearances will last for
years; when revivified under the new process it
will purify a larger quantity of gas than originally;
180 bushels have recently purified 2,500,000 cubic
feet of gas. The report states that during the
first half of the present year fifty-five houses have
been lighted up with 299 lights; additional, 330;
total, 629 lights, four boiling stoves, and two pri-
vate lamps. The corrected returns show for July 1
that the Company had at that date actually lighted
up 623 houses and public buildings with 5,838
lights, 353 public lamps, 28 toiling and cooking
stoves, and 35.private lamps. Upon the whole, the
Company may be congratulated upon the satis-
factory position of their affairs, which still promise
to make further progress

The bed A, which is of cast iron, is very heavy, and has at one end two uprights cast solid with it, containing bronze boxes to support the spindle. The front box B is made in four parts that it may be closed up to compensate for wear, the two middle pieces being forced in horizontally towards the centre of the spindle by the screws on each side of the box. The spindle is of steel and has only one flange or collar, which is outside of the front box. Between this flange and the end of the box is a hardened steel washer. The cone pulley C is kept from turning on the spindle by a spline. Back of the pulley is a nut by which it can be forced forward and its hub kept up to the rear end of the front box. By these devices the front

journal can readily be kept tight though considerable wear should take place. Should the spindle heat by continual use it will not bind endwise, nor will its expansion lengthwise affect the accuracy of the work done on the machine. The spindle is hollow, the hole being 14in. diameter, and has on the front end a steel chuck with screws and jaws for adjusting and holding the iron bar or wire from which the screws are made. On the rear end of the spindle is a leading screw and in the hand lever I a section of a nut, which fits into this screw. The bar H is fitted to slide end wise in bearings parallel to the spindle, and carries on its front end a toolhead J, and to the rear end the lever I is attached. A screw thread can be cut with this device on a bar projecting from the chuck on the front end of the spindle with a tool held in the head J, on the front end of the bar H. At the other end of the bed of the machine, resting upon two V-shaped ways, is a rectangular piece D, which can be fastened at any point by two screws from underneath.

Upon and attached to this is another piece, which is fitted to slide in a direction parallel to the bed, and is moved by the hand wheel K, connecting by means of a pinion and rack, or for light work, by the hand lever E, substituted for the hand wheel K. On the end of this sliding piece nearest the spindle a round head F is so arranged as to revolve horizontally. In the edge of this head are seven holes which serve to hold the mills, cutters, and dies used in making screws. The head is held very firmly in its place, while the cutters are operating by a steel pin which comes up through the piece on which the revolving head rests, at the point nearest the line of the spindle. This pin is hardened, and slides through a hardened steel bushing, and the upper end, which is tapered, enters into hardened bushings in the bottom of the revolving head. These steel bushings are ground inside and out after hardening, and the pin is afterwards ground into them so that the point fits them all alike. When the revolving head is moved back this pin is withdrawn by means of a short lever, the fulcrum of which is attached to the sliding piece which supports the revolving head, one end being connected with the pin and the other striking an inclined plane in the lower piece D, which is fastened to the bed. The extreme back motion given to the sliding piece carrying the revolving head by the hand wheel K, brings a star wheel on the under side of the revolving head in contact with a dog projecting upward from the lower piece D, which causes the head to revolve far enough to bring the next tool in a position ready to operate on the screw. When the revolving head is brought forward the star wheel slips over the dog and the pin enters the hole in the head, being forced up by a spring acting on the rear end of the short lever, after which the tool commences to operate.

There is an arrangement whereby any wear in the centre hole of the revolving head can be compensated for, and there are two jibs, one on each side of the sliding piece, carrying the revolving head, to adjust its position or to close up for wear. At the outer end of the sliding piece, projecting underneath it, is a screw L, which can be set to limit its motion. The tools in the revolving head are each held by two screws, by which they can be adjusted as required for the different cuts on the work. Shoes are inserted underneath these screws to prevent the tools they hold from being injured. Between the spindle and revolving head, and attached to the bed, is a slide rest operated by a crank M, attached to a screw, or for light work by the hand lever G. It has two tool posts, one at the back sliding in a groove parallel with the ways of the machine, and one in front sliding in either one of two grooves, side by side, but which are at right angles with the one at the back end. Both of these tool posts can be raised or lowered to adjust the tools. The bottom piece of this rest is planed on the ways of the bed, and can be moved upon them to any position required. The tools in this rest may be used for cutting off, pointing or grooving, and their movements may be limited, by set nuts upon a screw underneath the rest. Oil is supplied from the can placed above the revolving head, to the cutting tools, when the machine is in operation. The machine is set upon an iron table having a channel around the edge to catch the oil, which is conducted by tubes to a pail hung underneath the machine. The overhead work, which is shown in a reversed position on the floor in front of the machine, has two of Brown's patent friction pulleys, by which the motion of the spindle can be changed at will.

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practically so erroneous and vicious is permitted to
take root.

light, reflected from the bead, describes a curve expressing the resultant action.

When the wires are

The particular advantages of the small gauge lines have been frequently laid before our readers; The ratio between the vibrations of the two numerous papers have been read before various parts of the wire can evidently be adjusted, or professional societies, and the whole subject dis- altered, by raising or lowering the point clamped cussed in extens». We shall, therefore, not do more in the vice. The same end may also be obtained than glance at them-not for the purpose of deny- by loading the free portion of the wire by a little ing them, for they are indisputable, but to point out sliding weight. Both these means of adjustment that too much stress is placed upon them in com- I have tried with some success. I was not, howparison with counterbalancing demerits. In fact ever, prepared to find that an alteration in the the subject of small gauge railways in connection with that of main routes of communication can only angle of the bent wire would yield a more satisbe approached in a narrow-minded light, for al- factory result; but so it is. though they may suffice for the present they permit parallel and even in length, a combination of of no future. If a line A have a narrower gauge than 1 to 1 is obtained, and the bead describes a circle B it will, cateris paribus, cost less for construction passing into an oblique line; but on opening the and working, and it will, provided there is a free limb to an angle of about 30deg., the figure sufficient difference in the gauges, be possible to run changes into the complex curve given by the ratio the one in localities from which the other would be of 4 to 5. Opening the angle still further, the excluded. These advantages have been made the curve expressing the ratio of 3 to 4 is obtained; most of by the advocates of the small lines, and then at 45deg. 2 to 3; and at an angle of 75deg. have been unquestionably very much overrated. the figure of 8 comes out, expressing the ratio 1 to 2. Particular stress has been laid upon the circn-In fact, by varying the angle, an entire series of stance that the reduction of the width between the combinations, more or less perfect, can be prorails would afford increased facility for running round sharp curves, and, in fact, render the line more duced at will. manageable than one designed upon a wider track. In order to avoid the probable breaking of the But it is forgotten in this assumption that a decrease wire by repeated bendings, I had a light hinge in width is synonymous with an increase in length. joint made at the bend; but it was less satisfactory If the locomotive be narrowed it must also be than the simple bent wire, which, if well annealed, lengthened to furnish the requisite steam power, will bear innumerable bendings, and can be reand the capability of traversing curves is in the in-newed in a moment if broken. To obtain a steady verse ratio of the distance between the axles, or what is termed the wheel base of the engine, which gure, it is better to make the final adjustment is again dependent upon its total length. This by slightly raising or depressing the fixed wire. subject of narrow gauge railways is deserving of Fig. 1 shows the instrument. The wire is capable great attention at the present moment, when many of being firmly fixed at any height in a support parties, both at home and abroad, are ready to commit themselves to the system without bearing in mind the warnings of experience, or having due regard to the exigencies of the future." Building News."

NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS. "O one who has reflected upon the facts and arguments put forward by the advocates of narrow gauge railways, and combines the results of his reflections with the insolvent condition of many of our great lines, can help arriving at the conclusion that the capabilities of the latter are in excess of their requirements. As a rule, we are not favourable to the adoption of narrow, or more properly, small gauge railways; they appear, as it were, to constitute a bar to the future development and extension of commerce and traffic. We would greatly prefer to witness a large and important undertaking designed and executed upon a scale somewhat exceeding the proportions actually necessary, than to witness it carried out in a manner that barely sufficed to meet the exigencies of the moment. There is a medium between building for posterity, between concerning ourselves about the probable state of our coalfields after the lapse of half a dozen centuries, and constructing works so that they should be, in the main, capable of answering their intended purpose for the next fifty years. To each generation belongs its own duty of construction, reconstruction, demolition, and alteration, and it is unjustifiable to incur a heavy extra expenso in order that a thing may last for ever." Are we, then, awakening to the conviction that we have spent millions upon railways in endowing them with properties that are self-destructive? There is no doubt that such is the fact in the case of the Great Western line, and it is a fortunate circumstance for the invested capital of the country that the "battle of the gauges resulted in favour of the four-feeteight-and-a-half track. Before we condemn the solitary instance of the adoption of the broad gauge, or the universal introduction of the narrow, it should be kept in view that the conditions which guided the selection of either have never been fulfilled-the anticipations respecting them never realized. One of the reasons influencing Brunel in his recommendation of the "seven feet gauge was, that by thus enlarging the base of the rolling stock, increased stability would be obtained, and a speed ensured higher than that which would be compatible with safety upon a narrower track. Time has shown this reasoning to be fallacious; the trains upon the Great Western do not run faster, or, practically, with greater security than those upon other lines. Similarly, by its own supporters the four-feet-eightand-a-half gauge was considered the narrowest that could be employed with safety, bearing in mind the great velocity that was expected would be ul- Physicists are well acquainted with the elegant timately attained upon it. It is needless to mention experiments of M. Lissajous, in which the vibrathat the velocity anticipated never has been attained tions of two tuning forks, placed at rectangles, are on either of the gauges. Both Stephenson and optically combined by viewing a ray of light sucBrunel, it is well known, contemplated the proba-cessively reflected from a mirror attached to each bility of running trains at a speed of a hundred miles per hour, whereas the average maximum fork. A regular series of curves is thus obtained, reached is barely half this amount, and the minimum which give a perfect optical expression to each of is something less than what was the usual pace of

the old fast coach. "

From the foregoing statements, speaking generally, the conclusion may be deduced that as our railways do not carry out the purpose for which they were designed, it is now discovered that the assigned dimension is beyond what is required. It must not be understood that we consider this conclusion to

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apply to all our railways. A line similar in extent
and importance to the London and North-Western,
constructed upon a gauge of 3ft. or 3ft. would
be a miserable failure, but a double line upon a
similar width of track to convey the coal traffic from
Newcastle to London might not only present a
different appearance, but prove a very remunerative
speculation. Australia is the largest and most im-
portant country which has had the wisdom or the
folly to adopt ab initio the system of narrow gauge
railways. It is true that a young country should be
careful of its expenditure; it should construct its
works and routes of intercommunication in accord-
ance with the demands of probability rather than of
possibility, but at the same time, it is an exemplifi-
cation of the old adage "Penny wise and pound
foolish, to have no regard for the future, to incur
the chance of impeding future progress, of cramping
and restraining the growth of traffic, and of checking
the prosperity of a new colony. One of the worst
features attendant upon the introduction of the small
gauge lines in Australia is that they are not iden-
tical in the different colonies. By what particular
blunder, or by whose fault, this almost inconceivable
piece of stupidity could have been perpetrated it
would be as vain as useless to inquire. This is one
of the evils, and a very serious one, as Australia will
probably find to its cost, connected with the adop-
tion of small gauge railways. It is generally ad-
mitted that an imperfect standard is better than no
standard at all. Granting that the four-feet-eight-
and-a-half gauge is an imperfect standard, yet nobody
will deny that it is preferable for all the English
railways to be uniformly constructed upon that
standard than to include some half dozen different

gauges among them.
With small gauge railways
there is no standard. Every engineer selects that
which he considers the best, and, as a difference of a
couple of inches is sufficient to isolate any two
tracks as effectually as if one width was a multiple
of the other, it is not difficult to predict the lament-
able results that must ensue wherever a system

RECTANGULAR VIBRATIONS.

BY MR. W. FLETCHER BARRETT.

THE following paper on a simple method of ex-
hibiting the combination of rectangular vibra-
tions was read before the British Association in
August last, by Mr. W. F. Barrett, lecturer on
physical science at the International College:-

A more simple method of combining rectangular vibrations was long ago devised by Mr. Wheatstone who employed for this purpose a slender prismatic rod of steel, fixed at one end, and free to vibrate at the other.

One of the sides of the rod was filed

FIG. 1

FIG. 2

11

which is attached to a heavy stand, more convenient in use than a vice.

Not only may this arrangement be used for exthe musical intervals, the curves augmenting inhibiting the combination of vibrations, but it also complexity as the dissonance between the forks shows very prettily the formation of nodes and increases. Instructive and beautiful as are these exventral segments. Placing a piece of white paper periments, the extreme costliness of the apparatus behind the instrument, or casting its shadow on a necessary for their proper exhibition has hitherto debarred many from repeating them. screen, the vibration of the wire may be distinctly seen by a great number of people. The fixed arm will then be noticed always to vibrate as a whole, on the free arm an instructive change is seen to and the bend always to be a ventral segment. But take place in the position of a node which is there formed. When the arms are equal and parallel, and a ratio of 1 to 1 obtained, the node is near the free extremity of the bent wire; as the wire is raised and the angle increases, the node rises nearer to the bend. It is also well worth observing that, in any combination, the distance of the node from the free extremity of the wire, compared with its distance from tho bend, is approximately the same as the ratio of the interval depicted by the figure. I have now, in conclusion, to refer to another arrangement for effecting the combination of rectangular vibrations, which though rather less simple than the one just described, has the merit of being more easily adjusted and more permanent in character. This arrangement, shown in fig. 2, has been adapted by Mr. Ladd from an instrument devised by Professor Helmholtz. Two flat pieces of steel are here welded at right angles to each other into a single rod. The upper part (a) is tapering, and on its summit is fixed a polished silver bead. The lower part (b) is capable of being firmly fixed in a suitable support. According to the height at which b is clamped, so a corresponding portion is allowed to enter into vibration. A combination of the vibration of a with that of b command of any figure can be had by marking its can thus be obtained in any given ratio. Complete position on the lower strip of steel; and so nice an adjustment is possible, that an almost absolutely steady figure can be secured with a little care. If I may presume to suggest a name, I propose to call the instrument described in this paper a Tonophant.

away, until the vibrations were quicker in one
direction than the other by a certain definite ratio
When pulled aside, the rod compounded these
vibrations, and the resultant motion became appa-
rent by the movement of a silvered bead attached
to the free extremity of the rod. The labour of
filing away the steel, and the necessity of having
a separate rod for each combination, has practi-
cally prevented this instrument coming into use.
Beyond a most ingenious mechanical contrivance
for representing the combination of vibrations, I
am not aware that Mr. Wheatstone has designed
any simple instrument for effecting this purpose.*
Upwards of two years ago I found a method of
obtaining any desired combination by an extremely
simple arrangement. A piece of straightened
steel wire, about No. 16 gauge, and some 12in. or
18in. long, is first well softened in a flame at a
point 6in. or 8in. from the end, which length is
then bent downward.. The extremity of the
longer portion is fixed in a vice, a silvered bead
is cemented by marine glue on to the summit of
the bend, and the instrument is complete. The
whole system is thrown into vibration by smartly
tapping the wire near the point held in the vice,
and in a direction oblique to the plane of the two
wires. The vibration travels up the wire, rounds
the bend, and throws the inclined arm into motion.
The latter, being free, vibrates more easily than
the portion which is fixed at one extremity; a com-
pound motion is thus the result, and the spot of

May I here be allowed to express a wish that Mr.
Wheatstone would collect and republish his numerous
papers? So scattered are they, that I have searched in
vain for the original description of the Kaleidophone.

That is, nearly parallel, which is obtained by making a round bend.

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APPARATUS USED IN HEATON'S STEEL- figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, show d

CONVERTING PROCESS.

Ε

plate, which is placed upon the nitrate of soda. Fig. 5 is a horizontal section of a converter, showing the perforated plate in its position. Fig. 6 is cramps c c c, for holding the converter bottom up to the body of the converter whilst the converting process is going on; these cramps are shown also in figs. 1 and 2.

WE have on another page given a description of tuyeres for supplying air to the cupola; G the a sectional plan of a converter, showing the

the Heaton direct process of producing steel. The accompanying engravings afford a general notion of the very simple and inexpensive apparatus by which these operations are carried on. They represent the latest plant constructed at the Langley Mills Steel Works, in the Erewash Valley, near Nottingham, under Mr. Heaton's direction. The figures are drawn to a scale of one ninetysixth. Fig. 1 is a side view of the apparatus, showing also a vertical section of one-half of the cupola A; fig. 2 is a front view; and the same letters refer to the same parts in both views;

rent parts of the apparatus in plan; A A are cupola furnaces, in which the metal is melted; FF in fig. 1 are charge-hole, through which the cupola is charged with metal and coke from a platform with an inclined tramway leading to it; B C are converters, into which the metal is run direct from the cupolas, and from which the melted steel is run into the balling furnace C. D is a steam boiler, heated with the waste heat from the reverberatory furnace. Fig. 3 is a horizontal section of the removable bottom of a converter, showing the fire-brick lining d d d, which, when charged, is filled with a layer of nitrate of soda. Fig. 4 shows the perforated metal

ON Monday last the bodies of one man and of five boys were recovered in the Oaks Colliery, after havnearly two years ago. One of the bodies was idening remained in the pit since the great explosion, tified, but the others were in a condition which almost absolutely precluded recognition by their relatives or friends.

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