by the name of towns or boroughs. Richelet (Dictionnaire) says that the French word cite is only used in general when we speak of places where there are two towns, an old town and another which has been built since; and he adds that "la cité de Paris" means old Paris.

Sir William Blackstone, following Coke (1 Inst. 109 b), says, "A city is a town incorporated, which is or hath been the see of a bishop." (Comm. Introd., sec. iv.) But Westminster is a city, though it is not incorporated. Thetford is a town, though incorporated, and once the seat of a bishop. Whether Westminster owes its designation to the circumstance that it had a bishop for a few years of the reign of Henry VIII., and in the reign of Edward VI., may be doubted. But there are, besides Thetford, many places which were once the seats of bishops, as Sherburn, and Dorchester in Oxfordshire, which are never called cities. On the whole, we can rather say that certain of our ancient towns are called cities, and their inhabitants citizens, than show why this distinction prevails and what are the criteria by which they are distinguished from other towns. These ancient towns are those in which the cathedral of a bishop is found; to which are to be added Bath and Coventry, which, respectively with Wells and Lichfield, occur in the designation of the bishop in whose diocese they are situated; and Westminster, which in this respect stands alone.

In the United States of North America the name City is usually given to large towns, as New York, Philadelphia, and

others.

CIVIL LAW. [ROMAN LAW.]

CIVIL LIST. The expenses of the English government, including military expenses, were formerly comprehended in one general list, and defrayed out of what was called the royal revenue. For a considerable period after the Conquest this revenue, derived from the rents of the crown lands, and from other sources, was at the command and under the controlled management of the crown through the exercise of the prerogative. Even when at a later period the greater portion of the expenses of the government

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This state of things continued to the Restoration in 1660. A distinction was then made between the military expenses of the government, or those occasioned by war, which were considered of the nature of extraordinary expenses, and those incurred in the maintenance of the ordinary establishments of the country. The revenues appropriated to the latter were called the hereditary or civil-list revenues, and were provided for partly from the crown lands that remained unalienated, and partly from certain taxes imposed by parliament expressly for that purpose during the life of the reigning king. In the reign of King William III. the sum applicable to the civil list, on an average of years, amounted to the annual sum of about 680,000l. This sum was applied in defraying the expenses of the royal household and of the privy purse, the maintenance and repairs of the royal palaces, the salaries of the lord chancellor, the judges, the great officers of state, and the ambassadors at foreign courts; and out of it were also paid the incomes of the members of the royal family, the secret service money, pensions, and a long list of other claims. The interest of the national debt, however, was never defrayed from the sum allotted for the civil list.

In the reign of Queen Anne the civil list remained of nearly the same amount as in the reign of King William. The principal taxes appropriated to it were an excise of 2s. 6d. per barrel on beer, which produced about 286,000l. per annum, a tonnage and poundage duty, which produced about 257,000l., and the profits of the post-office, from which about 100,000/ was derived.

At the commencement of the reign George I., 700,000l. a year was voted parliament for the civil list, and cer taxes, as usual, were appropriated to branch of the public expenditure.

This check upon the wanton and extravagant disposal of the public money is thoroughly in accordance with just and constitutional principles. The amount which can be granted in pensions by the crown in any one year is not to exceed 12007.; and the Civil List Act restricts, though in a comprehensive spirit, the persons to whom they are to be granted, who must be such persons only as have just claims on the royal benevolence, or who by their personal services to the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country. A list of all such pensions must be laid before parliament yearly. [PENSIONS; WOODS AND FORESTS.]

CIVILIZATION. The words civilization, education, and religion, with many others, are often used without any precise ideas being attached to them; yet there are no words that require to be more thoroughly analysed.

The meaning of a word is often formed by degrees. As soon as a particular fact presents itself to our notice which appears to have a specific relation to a known term, it becomes immediately incorporated with it; and hence the meaning of many terms gradually extends, and finally embraces all the various facts and ideas which are considered to belong to it. On this account, there is more depth as well as accuracy in the usual and ordinary meaning of complex terms than in any definitions which can be given of them, notwithstanding the definition may appear to be more strict and precise. In the majority of instances scientific definitions are too narrow, and owing to this circumstance they are frequently less exact than the popular meaning of terms; it is therefore in its popular and ordinary signification that we must seek for the various ideas that are included in the term civilization.

Now, the fundamental notion of civilization is that of a progressive movement, of a gradual development, and a tendency to amelioration. It always suggests the idea of a community, of a political body, of a nation, which is advancing methodically, and with distinct and clear views of the objects which it seeks to attain: progress, continual improvement, is therefore the fundamental idea contained in our notion of the term Civilization.

As to this progress and improvement involved in the term Civilization, to what do they apply? The etymology of the word answers the question. From this we learn that it does not contemplate the actual number, power, or wealth of a people, but their civil condition, their social relations, and intercourse with each other. Such then is the first impression which arises in our mind when we pronounce the word Civilization. It seems to represent to us at once the greatest activity and the best possible organization of society; so as to be productive of a continual increase, and a distribution of wealth and power among its members, whereby their absolute and relative condition is kept in a state of constant improvement.

But great as is the influence which a well organised civil society must have upon the happiness of the human race, the term Civilization seems to convey something still more extensive, more full and complete, and of a more elevated and dignified character, than the mere perfection of the social relations, as a matter of order and arrangement. In this other aspect of the word it embraces the development of the intellectual and moral faculties of man, of his feelings, his propensities, his natural capacities, and his tastes.

Education, which is the result of a well ordered social arrangement, and also its perfector and conservator, an education which shall give to every member of the community the best opportunities for developing the whole of his faculties, is the end which civilization, or a society in a state of continued progress, must always have in view.

The fundamental ideas then, contained

in the word Civilization are the continual advancement of the whole society in wealth and prosperity, and the improvement of man in his individual capacity.

When the one proceeds without the other, it is immediately felt that there is something incomplete and wanting. The mere increase of national wealth, unaccompanied by a corresponding knowledge and intelligence on the part of the people, seems to be a state of things premature in existence, uncertain in duration, and insecure as to its stability. We are unacquainted with the causes of its origin, the principles to which it can be traced, and what hopes we may form of its continuance. We wish to persuade ourselves that this prosperity will not be limited to a few generations, or to a particular people or country, but that it will gradually spread, and finally become the inheritance of all the people of the earth. And yet what rational expectation can we entertain of such a state of things becoming universal? It is only by means of education, conducted upon right principles, that we can ever hope to see true national prosperity attained, and rendered permanent. The development of the moral and intellectual faculties must go hand in hand with the cultivation of the industrious arts; united, they form the great engine for giving true civilization to the world.

In fact, without the union of these two elements, civilization would stop half way; mere external advantages are liable to be lost or abused without the aid of those more refined and exalted studies which tend to improve the mind, and call forth the feelings and affections of the heart. It must be repeated, civilization consists in the progressive improvement of the society considered as a whole, and of all the individual members of which it is composed.

The means by which this improvement of the whole of a society and of all the members of it may be best effected, will vary somewhat in different countries. European nations consider and call their social state civilized, and they view the social states of other countries, which do not rest on the same foundation, either as

barbarous or as less civilized than their own. An impartial observer may allow that if we measure civilization by the rule here laid down, the nations of Europe, and other nations whose social systems have a like basis, are the most civilized. The civilization of Europe and of the nations of European origin is founded mainly on two elements, the Christian religion and the social state which grew up from the diffusion of the power of the Romans. The establishment of feudality in many countries greatly affected the social basis; and the consequences are still seen, but more distinctly in some parts of Europe than in others. The elements of such a social system are essentially different from those on which is founded the system of China, of the nations which profess Mohammedanism, and of the nations of the Indian peninsula. European civilization is active and restless, but still subordinate to constituted authority. It gives to man the desire and the means to acquire wealth at home, and it stimulates him to adventure and discovery abroad. It seeks to assimilate the civilization of other nations to its own by conquest and colonization, and it is intolerant of all civilization that is opposed to itself. Asiatic civilization is at present inert, it is not in a state of progress, and is exposed to the inroads of European civilization. European civilization has been and is most active in increasing the power of states as states, and in increasing their wealth; it also gives facilities for men of talent and enterprise to acquire wealth and power by means recognised as legal and just; and it is now beginning to extend the means of individual improvement among all the members of its communities more widely than any other civilization; but the amount of poverty and ignorance which still co-exist by the side of wealth and intelligence, wherever European civilization has been established, show that much remains to be done before the individual happiness of these States can be as complete and their internal condition as sound as their collective wealth is unbounded and their external aspect is fair and flourishing.

The nations of Europe consider their