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to:-"Since the making of which act such a great number of persons, seeking only to live easily and to leave their honest labour, have and do daily seek to be allowed to the said office, being most unfit and unmeet for those purposes, and also very hurtful to the commonwealth of this realm, as well by enhancing the price of corn and grain, as also by the diminishing of good and necessary husbandmen." Accordingly it was then enacted that the licences to corn-badgers should only be granted once a year by the justices at quarter-sessions, instead of at any period by three justices; and that none were to obtain a licence but resident householders of three years' standing, who are or have been married, and of the age of thirty, and are not servants or retainers to another person. Those who received a licence were to have it renewed at the end of every year. Licensed persons were also required to find security not to forestall or engross in their dealings, and not to buy out of open fair or market, except under express licence. The statute did not apply to the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancaster, Chester, and York.

In 1554 a new act was passed (1 & 2 Phil. and Mary, c. 5) which allowed exportation so long as the price of wheat should not exceed 6s. 8d., that of rye 4s., and that of barley 3s. per quarter. The preamble complains that former acts against the exportation of grain and provisions had been evaded, by reason whereof they had grown unto a "wonderful dearth and extreme prices." Under the act of 1554, when prices exceeded 68. Sd. per quarter for wheat exportation was to cease; and when it was under that price it could not be exported to any foreign country, or to Scotland, without a licence, under penalty of forfeiting double the value of the cargo as well as the vessel, besides imprisonment of the master and mariners of the vessel for one year. The penalty for exporting a greater quantity than was warranted by the licence was treble the value of the cargo, and imprisonment; and a cargo could be taken only to the port mentioned in the licence. The object was to prevent exportation when

there was not a sufficient supply in the home market, and to permit it to be sent abroad when it was below a certain price at home.

In 1562, only eight years after the act 1 & 2 Phil. and Mary had been passed, the liberty of exportation was extended, and wheat might be carried out of the country when the average price was 10s. per quarter and under, that of rye, peas, and beans 8s., and that of barley or malt 68. 8d. per quarter (5 Eliz. c. 5); and to prevent evasion of the law, it was enacted that the corn and grain should only be exported from such ports as her Majesty might by proclamation appoint.

In 1571 a statute was passed (13 Eliz. c. 13) which contains provisions for settling once a-year the average prices by which exportation should be governed. The Lord President and Council in the North, also the Lord President and Council in Wales, and the Justices of Assize, within their respective jurisdictions, "yearly shall, upon conference had with the inhabitants of the country, of the cheapness and dearth of any kinds of grain," determine "whether it shall be meet at any time to permit any grain to be carried out of any port within the said several jurisdictions or limits; and so shall, in writing, under their hands and seal, cause and make a determination either for permission or prohibition, and the same cause to be, by the sheriff of the counties, published and affixed in as many accustomed market-towns and ports within the said shire as they shall think convenient." The averages, when once struck, were to continue in force until the same authorities ordered otherwise; and if their regulations should "be hurtful to the country by means of dearth, or be a great hinderance to tillage by means of too much cheapness," they could make the necessary alterations. All proceedings under this act were to be notified to the queen or privy council. The statute enacted that, "for the better increase of tillage, and for maintenance and increase of the navy and mariners of this realm," corn might be exported st all times to friendly countries when proclamation was not made to the contrary. A poundage or customs duty of Is. per

quarter was charged on all wheat exported; but if exported under special licence, and not under the act, the duty was 2s. per quarter.

The law of 1463, which prohibited importation so long as the price of wheat was under 68. 8d., that of rye under 4s., and that of barley under 3s. the quarter, appears not to have been repealed, but it must have remained inoperative, from the prices seldom or probably never descending below these rates. The importation of corn, therefore, we may reckon to have been practically free at this time.

In 1592-3 the price at which exportation was permitted was raised to 20s. per quarter, and the customs duty was fixed at 28. (35 Eliz. c. 7). In 1603-4 the importation price was raised to 268. 8d. per quarter (1 Jac. I. c. 25); and in 1623 to 32s. (21 Jac. I. c. 28). By the 21 Jac. I. c. 28, unless wheat was under 328. per quarter, and other grain in proportion, buying corn and selling it again was not permitted. The king could restrain the liberty of exportation by proclamation. In 1627-8 another statute relative to the corn-trade was passed (3 Car. I. c. 5), which, however, made no alteration in the previous statute of James I. In 1660 a new scale of duties was introduced. When the price of wheat per quarter was under 448. the import duty was 2s.; and when the price was above 44s., the duty fell to 4d. Exportation was permitted at a duty of 18. per quarter whenever the price of wheat did not exceed 40s. per quarter (12 Car. II. c. 4): the export duty was 18. per quarter.

In 1663 the corn-trade again became the subject of legislation, and an act was passed (15 Car. II. c. 7). The preamble of this act commenced by asserting that "the surest and effectualest means of promoting and advancing any trade, occupation, or mystery, being by rendering it profitable to the users thereof," and that, large quantities of land being waste, which might be profitably cultivated if sufficient encouragement were given for the cost and labour on the same, it should be enacted, with a view of encouraging the application of capital

and labour to waste lands, that, after September, 1663, when wheat did not exceed 488. per quarter at the places and havens of shipment, the import duty should be 5s., and when the price was above 48s. the duty was to be 4d. By the same act when wheat did not exceed 488. per quarter, it might be exported, and when it was also at this price "then it shall be lawful for all and every person (not forestalling nor selling the same in the open market within three months after the buying thereof) to buy in open market, and to keep in his or their granaries or houses, and to sell again, such corn and grain," any statute to the contrary notwithstanding. This latter part of the statute abolished in effect the provisions of 5 & 6 Edward VI. c. 14, respecting the buying and selling of corn and grain.

In 1670, by another act (22 Car. II. c. 13), exportation was permitted, although the price of wheat should exceed the price fixed by the act of 1663 (488.); but a customs' duty of 1s. per quarter was in this case to be charged. Wheat imported from foreign countries was at the same time loaded with duties so heavy as effectually to exclude it, the duty being 168. when the price in this country was at or under 53s. 4d. per quarter, and 8s. when above that price and under 80s., at which latter price importation became free. The object of this act was to relieve the agricultural interests from the depression under which they were labouring from the low prices of produce which had existed for twenty years, more particularly from 1646 to 1665. Between 1617 and 1621 wheat fell from 43s. 3d. the quarter to 27s., in consequence of which farmers were unable to pay their rents. The low price was occasioned by abundant harvests; "for remedy whereof the Council have written letters into every shire, and some say to every market-town, to provide a granary or storehouse, with a stock to buy corn, and keep it for a dear year." (Contemporary writers quoted by Mr. Tooke in his Hist. of Prices.') The cheapnes of wheat was attended with the good effect of raising the standard of diet amongst the poorer classes, who are described as "traversing the markets to

find out the finest wheats, for none else would now serve their use, though before they were glad of the coarser rye bread." (Ibid.) The act of 1670 does not appear to have answered its object. Roger Coke, writing in 1671, says "The ends designed by the acts against the importation of Irish cattle, of raising the rents of the lands of England, are so far from being attained, that the contrary hath ensued" (Ibid); and Coke speaks of a great diminution of cultivation.

The harvests of 1673-4-5 proved defective, and the same result occurred in 1677-8, so that the average price of the seven years ending 1672, during which wheat ranged at 368. the quarter, was followed in the seven subsequent years, ending 1679, by an average of 468., being a rise of nearly 30 per cent. But these years of scarcity were followed by twelve abundant seasons in succession (with the exception of 1684, which was somewhat deficient), and the price of corn and grain again sunk very low. In the six years ending 1691 the average price of wheat was 298. 5d. the quarter, and if the four years ending 1691 be taken, the average price was only 27s. 7d., being lower than at any period during the whole of the century. There was no competition in the English market with the foreign grower during the above-mentioned years of low prices; and exportation was freely permitted on payment of a nominal duty. The meaus which the landed interest took to relieve themselves will be noticed in the next period.

sent to the chief officer at the customhouse in each district.

II. From 1689 to 1773.

The high prices of the seven years ending 1679 led to an extension of tillage, and this was followed by a succession of favourable seasons which occasioned low prices. Exportation of corn therefore was not only permitted as heretofore, but encouraged by bounties. The statute for granting bounties (1 Wm. and Mary, c. 12) is entitled 'An Act for Encouraging the Exportation of Corn. The preamble states that it had been "found by experience that the exportation of corn and grain into foreign countries, when the price thereof is at a low rate in this kingdom, hath been a great advantage, not only to the owners of land, but to the traders of this kingdom in general;" and it was enacted that a bounty of 5s. the quarter should be granted on the exportation of wheat, so long as the home price did not exceed 488., with other bounties of smaller amount upon the exportation of barley, malt, and rye. The growers of corn were in possession of a market the sole supply of which was secured to them by the act of 1670 (22 Car. II. c. 13), and by the Bounty Act it was designed to prevent the overstocking of that market.

The seven years immediately succeeding 1693 were remarkable for a succession of unfavourable seasons. In the four years ending 1691 the price of wheat averaged 27s. 7d. the quarter, but in the The mode of taking the average prices four years preceding and including 1699 of corn and grain established in 1570 (13 it reached 56s. Cd. The bounty was Eliz. c. 13) was acted upon till 1685, the inoperative during this period, and was necessary provisions for an alteration suspended by statute (12 Wm III. c. 1), having been neglected in the Corn Act of from the 9th of February, 1699, to the 1670. These were made by a statute 29th of September, 1700. The preamble which enacted that justices of the peace, of the act contained an acknowledgment in counties wherein foreign corn might that the statute granting the bounty was be imported, may, at quarter-sessions, by grounded upon the highest wisdom and the oaths of two persons duly qualified-prudence, and has succeeded, to the greatthat is, possessed of freehold estates of the annual value of 20l., or leasehold estates of 50l., and not being corn-dealers, and by such other means as they shall see fit, determine the market price of middling English corn, which is to be certified on oath, hung up in some public place, and

est benefit and advantage to the nation by the greatest encouragement of tillage. Before this temporary act had expired, another act was passed in 1700 (11 & 12 Wm. III. c. 20), which abolished the export duties of 1s. per quarter for wheat, and a less sum on other corn. "From 1697

to 1773 the total excess of exports over imports was 30,968,366 quarters, upon which export bounties, amounting to 6,237,1767 were paid out of the public revenue." (Commons' Report on Agric. Distress, 1821.) In 1750 the sum of 324,1761. was paid in bounties on corn. The exports of 1748-49-50 (during which, moreover, the price of wheat fell from 32s. 10 d. to 28s. 103d. the quarter) amounted to 2,120,000 quarters of wheat, and of all kinds of corn and grain to 3,825,000 quarters. This was the result of a cycle of abundant years and of extended cultivation caused by the bounty. In the twenty-three years from 1692 to 1715, says Mr. Tooke, in his elaborate 'History of Prices,' there were eleven bad seasons, during which the average price of wheat was 45s. 8d. the quarter; in the fifty years ending 1765 there were only five deficient harvests, and the average price for the whole half-century ranged at 34s. 11d.; and, taking the ten years ending 1751, during which the crops were constantly above an average, the price of wheat was only 29s. 2 d. the quarter.

Adam Smith refers to "the peculiarly happy circumstances of the country during these times of plenty; and Mr. Hallam describes the reign of George II. as "the most prosperous period that England had ever experienced." "Bread

made of wheat is become more generally the food of the labouring people," observes the author of the Corn Tracts,' writing in 1765. Referring to the same period, Mr. Malthus remarks:-"It is well known that during this period the price of corn fell considerably, while the wages of labour are stated to have risen." Trade was flourishing, and the exports and imports progressively increasing during this period of abundance.

In twenty-six years, from 1730 to 1755, there had been only one unfavourable season, but from 1765 to 1775 there was a very frequent recurrence of unfavourable years, and the last five years of this period were all of this character. In 1766 the quartern loaf was selling in London at 1s. 6d.; addresses were sent up from various parts of the country complaining of general distress; and a pro

clamation was issued suspending exporta tion, and for enforcing the laws against forestallers and regraters. Exportation was suspended also in the following year, and also in 1770 and 1771. In 1772 importation was allowed duty-free to the 1st of May, 1773; and in this latter year the city of London offered a bounty of 48. per quarter for 20,000 quarters of wheat, to be imported between March and June. The average prices of wheat had risen from 298. 24d. in the ten years ending 1751, to 51s. for the ten years ending 1774, being an advance of 75 per cent. The excess of exports over imports from 1742 to 1751 had been 4,700,509 quarters of wheat, and, including all kinds of grain, 8,869,190 quarters, but from 1766 to 1775 there was an excess of imports to the extent of 1,363,149 quarters of wheat and 3,782,734 of corn and grain of all kinds. The old corn-law of 1689, under which a bounty on exportation had been granted, was now become a dead letter in consequence of the high range of prices in the home market.

After the peace of 1763 population rapidly advanced with the growth of trade and manufactures. In the reign of George I. there had only been sixteen enclosure acts passed; in the succeeding reign there were 226; but the number of such acts from 1760 to 1772 inclusive amounted to 585.

Several acts were passed in the period between 1689 and 1773 relating to the mode of ascertaining the average prices of corn and grain. In one of them, passed in 1729, the preamble states that the justices of the peace had “neglected to settle the price of corn at their quartersessions after Michaelmas last, and to return certificates thereof to the chief officer and collector of the customs residing in the respective ports where the said corn or grain has been or may be imported; by means whereof the said officers were at a loss how to charge the customs and duty due for such corn; which has been, and may be, a great loss to the revenue, and a detriment to the farmers and fair traders." To remedy the negligence of the gentry, the collectors of customs were empowered to settle the averages.

In 1732 another act was passed" for the

the advancement of tillage and navigation, but that, on account of the small supplies on hand and scanty crops, it had been frequently necessary to suspend the ope ration of the laws; and that a permanent law on the corn-trade "would afford en

better ascertaining the common prices of middling English corn and grain, and for preventing the fraudulent importation of corn and grain." After 1st June, 1732, the justices of the peace, in counties which contained ports of importation, were to charge the grand jury at quarter-couragement to the farmer, be the means sessions to make inquiry and presentment upon oath of the common market-prices, which were to be certified to the officers at the ports specified. The averages were, however, only to be taken four times a year.

In 1766 the authorities of the city of London were empowered to settle the price of middling English corn and grain in January and July, in addition to the former periods of April and October.

It was not until 1770 that returns of prices were directed to be made weekly. In that year an act was passed, on the ground that a "register of the prices at which corn is sold in the several counties of Great Britain will be of public and general advantage." The justices of the peace were to order returns to be made weekly of the prices of British corn and grain from such towns in each county as they thought proper; the number of towns selected in each county not being more than six nor less than two. The Treasury was to appoint a receiver of corn returns, who was to publish an abstract of the weekly returns in the London Gazette,' and four times a year certify to the clerks of the peace the prices which were respectively prevalent in each county.

In 1772 an act was passed (12 Geo. III. c. 71) which removed several restrictions in old statutes on the ground that, "by preventing a free trade in the said commodities [corn, flour, cattle, &c.], they have a tendency to discourage the growth and enhance the price of the same, which statutes, put into execution, would bring great distress on the inhabitants of many parts of the kingdom."

III. From 1773 to 1791.

In the preamble of the Corn Act of 1773 (13 Geo. III. c. 43) it is acknowledged that previous laws had greatly tended to

of increasing the growth of that necessary commodity, and of affording a cheaper and more constant supply to the poor." And the act then fixes the following scale of duties, to come into operation on the 1st of January, 1774-Whenever the price of middling British wheat, at ports of importation, was at or above 488. per quarter, a duty of only 6d. per quarter was to be taken on all foreign wheat imported during the continuance of that price. When the price was at or above 44s., exportation and the bounty together were to cease; and the carrying of British grain coastwise ceased also. Under this act, corn and grain might be shipped to Ireland when exportation was prohibited from that country. Foreign corn warehoused under bond in twenty-five ports of Great Britain mentioned in the act might be re-exported duty free.

The home market was now opened to foreign supplies of corn under much more advantageous terms than before. Importation was constant and considerable, and prices were steadier on the whole, during the eighteen years from 1775 to 1792notwithstanding the occurrence of five seasons in which the harvests were deficient-than they had been in the ten years preceding 1773. In the ten years ending 1769 the excess of exports amounted to 1,384,561 quarters; but in the next ten years, ending 1779, the excess was on the side of the imports to the extent of 431,566 quarters; and in the similar ten years ending 1789 there was also an excess amounting to 233,502 quarters. From 1760 to 1780 the number of acres enclosed under local acts was 1,912,350; in the ten years ending 1789 the number of acres enclosed had fallen to 450,180. The average price of wheat was 45. the quarter in the ten years ending 1779, and 45s. 9d. in the ten years ending 1789. The extension of cultivation in the twenty years from 1760 to 1780, together with the improvement of agriculture, sufficed

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