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strips or tongues of wood or iron, the groove being deep enough to receive one-half the width of the strip, so that, when the abutting board is pushed home, an equal width of strip is embraced by both. If iron is used, it ought to be galvanised to protect it from decay. The joints between the ends of the timber are usually made by simply adjusting the two flat ends together, but it is better, in inexpensive work, to splay the ends, so that the one slightly overlaps the other. These joints ought invariably to correspond with the joists, and contiguous boards ought not to be jointed over the same joist.

Double joists, the upper lot for the floor, and the lower for the ceiling-laths of the room below, are much to be preferred to single joists only with ceiling-laths. They afford a firmer surface for the plaster, which, in consequence, does not crack so readily, and sound is less easily carried from one room to the other.

Wall-papers.-Mention has already been made of the most suitable material for lining walls, the great object to be attained being smoothness of surface, and non-porosity; the decorative part of the work has now to be considered, in so far as it relates to health.

A wall-paper ought to have a smooth surface, so that dust may not collect on it, although certain stamped papers that have an uneven surface are easily cleansed. The worst dirt collectors are flock papers. Most papers, unfortunately, absorb moisture, but the worst in this respect are the so-called satin papers. Washing papers are now manufactured, and some of these, for example, that known as "Muraline," certainly do permit of being washed without injury to the colour.

The most important consideration, however, in selecting papers, is to avoid those that contain arsenic. Although this danger is now pretty generally recognised, it is too often disregarded, notwithstanding the fact that papers in all colours can be had free from it, indeed the best makers no longer use arsenic. It is popularly supposed that green is the only dangerous colour, and that the sole precaution necessary is to avoid it; this is an absolute fallacy, for other coloured papers may contain arsenic.

The medicinal dose of arsenic varies from to grain, and when one considers that wall-papers have been found to contain as much as 17 grains per square foot, the gravity of the question becomes apparent. The danger attending the use of arsenical wall-papers arises from the substance being inhaled, either as dust particles, or in the form of a gas-namely, arseniuretted hydrogen, and the risk of both occurrences is increased by the

methods adopted in the preparation of the paper. Size is used for the purpose of retaining the colour, and when it dries it has a tendency to crack and peel off, carrying with it particles of colouring matter, which are thus disseminated throughout the air of the room. It would appear also that size, in combination with arsenical compounds, has the power of liberating the highly poisonous gas already mentioned, which, owing to its ready absorption by the lungs, is the most fatal form in which the poison is met with.

There is no simple test by which the public can ascertain the presence of arsenic in wall-paper, so that the only safeguard is to deal only with reliable firms, and if there is any reason to doubt their honesty, it is well to ask for a guarantee with regard to the purity of the paper, which may afterwards be verified by the certificate of an analyst. It may be mentioned in passing, although it does not come within the scope of this work, that certain articles of clothing-muslin for exampleas well as artificial flowers, and toys, may give rise to arsenical poisoning.

Re-Papering of Walls.—Before re-papering a room the old paper ought to be completely removed, and the walls should be thoroughly cleansed. This is a practice which is by no means invariably followed, although a moment's thought will convince one of its importance. Layer after layer of paper is applied, one above the other, by means of paste composed of organic matter, and the result of this is that decomposition, which is encouraged by the moisture and heat of occupied rooms (see p. 73), ultimately takes place, and unwholesome smells are given off.

In concluding this chapter on house construction, it may be laid down as a general axiom, as regards the interior, that angles and projections should be avoided as far as possible, especially in situations beyond convenient reach, as they encourage the accumulation of dust and dirt. This caution applies equally to articles of furniture, such as wardrobes, projecting cupboards, and bookcases, the tops of which, in place of being perfectly flat, have usually false cornices attached for the sake of appearance, forming deep receptacles in which the dust of ages collects. In the case of new houses, it is becoming customary to construct such articles of furniture as fixtures in the walls, a practice which economises space, and obviates the nuisance referred to.

To facilitate cleansing, it is also desirable that all floor coverings should be easily removed. Carpets ought not to extend over the whole floor, as they will then seldom be taken up, owing to the labour involved in moving heavy side pieces of

furniture. Thus dirt will collect within the texture of the material, and be scattered throughout the air of the room by persons walking about. In bedrooms especially the less floor covering there is the better.

Unless under exceptional circumstances, wooden floors should not be washed, as damp is thus diffused throughout the room. This is especially important in the case of hospital floors. Polishing with beeswax is a far better proceeding, and it renders the floor almost non-absorbent.

CHAPTER IX.

INFECTION AND DISINFECTION.

THE subject to which this chapter is devoted is one which ought to engage the serious attention of the Sanitary Inspector and the public generally. It is one concerning which the grossest ignorance prevails, at the cost of a large amount of needless suffering and death. The royal president of the 1891 International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, in alluding in his inaugural address to the class of diseases known as preventable, asked the question, "If preventable, why not prevented?" In reply, it may be said that apathy and ignorance on the part of the public are mainly responsible, and until the people wake up to the fact that without their assistance the efforts of sanitarians to stamp out contagion must be largely inoperative, little advance can be made.

In order to appreciate the importance of the precautionary measures which are recommended for the purpose of preventing or limiting the spread of infectious disease, it is necessary in the first place to consider what the nature of the infective agents is, and by what channels they enter the body. There are few subjects more interesting, none more important to the sanitarian, than investigations into the nature of that something, outside and apart from our bodies, to which we owe the existence of infectious disease. Modern research in this direction has

thrown considerable light on what formerly was wrapt in obscurity, and although much yet remains to be discovered, what has already been accomplished has exposed many fallacies and brought about many changes in the old methods of pre

vention.

The researches of Pasteur, Koch, and Klein, along with those of many other investigators, have revolutionised preventive medicine, and, through their labours, the truth of what was known as the "germ theory of disease" may now be said to have been proved. As the discovery of the cause of disease is the first step towards the remedy, the more accurate our knowledge, the more active must our efforts be to make use of it. The investigations of these men have exposed dangers to health formerly unthought of, and already fresh legislation has been the result.

More particular attention has thus been directed to our foodsupply as a source of danger to health, and this has led to the introduction of the "Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order," and the recent "Infectious Diseases Prevention Act," both of which have added to the responsibilities of sanitary authorities. The study of diseases of animals in relation to those of man has brought to light new dangers; for example, the investigations, at the instance of the Local Government Board, into the cause of the now celebrated epidemic of scarlet fever at Hendon, and later at South Kensington, in which the contagion was apparently traced to an epidemic affection of the teats of cattle of a trivial nature.*

The probable identity between tuberculosis in man and animals, and the likelihood that the disease may be introduced into the system by cow's milk and butcher's meat (although Koch, the discoverer of the bacillus, now disputes this), has led to important results, legislative and otherwise, which will receive attention later.

Again, as regards the channels by which the contagion of diphtheria may gain admission, the opinion that domestic animals are in some cases responsible has, during the past few years, been gaining ground. In 1888, Dr. Bruce Low, in a report to the Local Government Board on an epidemic of this disease which occurred at Enfield, mentioned an instance in which a cat seems to have communicated the infection. It

*See also an account of an epidemic of scarlatina by Dr. Bostock Hill, Public Health, August, 1891.

appears that a child, who died from the disease, had vomited on to the floor on the first day of illness, and a cat was seen to lick the vomit. In the course of a day or two (and after the boy had died) the cat was found to be suffering severely from symptoms very similar to those noticed in the case of the boy, so much so that the owner destroyed it. Early in its illness this cat was let out into the back yard, and a few days later a cat belonging to a neighbour, which had also been in the yard, was found to be suffering in the same way. The second cat, during its illness, was constantly nursed by four little girls, all of whom developed diphtheria, and, apart from this, no other source of infection to which they had been exposed could be traced.

As more recent examples of the dangers man has to fear from animals, may be mentioned the part played by rats in conveying plague, and by a certain species of mosquito as the carrier of the poison of malarial fever.

Although, no doubt, in time further evidence will be forthcoming to add to the dangers we have to fear from animals in this respect, in the case of most infectious diseases the usual cause of infection is personal communication, either direct or indirect. This will be dealt with in discussing the preventive measures appropriate to each disease.

The belief, then, that all infectious diseases are associated with minute living germs (micro-organisms) is now generally accepted; in fact, in the case of several diseases the connection has been conclusively demonstrated.

These germs possess an independent existence, and, when introduced into the body, have the power of multiplying enormously. Whether they are the direct cause of the diseases with which they are associated, or whether the cause is to be attributed to morbific materials to which they give rise, is still an open question, but this does not affect the main fact that their presence is an essential element in the production of what are known as specific infectious diseases. Neither does it matter, for our present purpose, in what manner their existence within the body gives rise to the manifestations peculiar to each form of disease.

Some of these organisms are extremely tenacious of life, as is shown, for example, by the fact that the contagion of scarlatina has been proved to retain its virulence for years in clothing.

In order to combat the diseases of the infectious class, it is necessary to know the habits and understand the requirements of the organisms which give rise to them, and as filth, in its broad

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