boats. He proposed the matter to the Admiralty, and was permitted by Sir Charles Wood to make known his plan to the French minister; and he believed the Gloire was built in a great measure according to the plan which he had sent in to Mr. Scott Russell, with an iron protecting screw and rudder at each end. He had not to thank his brother officers for their courtesy at the Admiralty. Of the naval architects there, however, he was bound to speak gratefully and with respect. He found that that part of his invention which went to sink a vessel by concussion was left out in building the Warrior. He felt that if these vessels could be adopted there would be an end to timber vessels. He sought to unite the power of concussion with the guns. Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N., had hoped that some observations would have been made on the deflection of shot. He had come five miles to hear Sir Howard Douglas's letter, and he would have gone 500 miles to do so if it had been necessary. That gallant officer had originally set his face against this armour-plating; but he now found that it was essentially necessarythe question being whether it should be applied on wooden or iron carcasses. He (Captain Osborn) was greatly inclined to the use of iron only.

Captain Scott, R. N., addressed the meeting on the effect produced by different shot upon iron, and drew a variety of diagrams on the board. He thought it was a mistake to put aside the ordinary round shot, especially for short distances.

After a few words from the Secretary, as to the objects and operations of the Institution, the meeting adjourned till eleven o'clock on Friday morning.

The discussion was renewed on Friday morning, the chair being taken by Mr. J. Inman Fincham, Master Shipwright of the Royal Victoria Dockyard, Deptford. Mr. Josiah Jones, of Liverpool; Captain Sullivan, R.N., C.B., of the Board of Trade; Mr. J. Gran. tham; Admiral Sir Edward Belcher; Captain Blakely; Mr. Charles Lancaster; and Captain Adderley Sleigh, took part in it; and Mr. Samuda, and Mr. Scott Russell replied upon the whole subject.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Feb. 26.-George P. Bidder, Esq., President, in the chair.

The whole of the evening was occupied by the discussion upon Mr. Fox's paper, "On the Results of Trials of Varieties of Iron Permanent Way."

It was observed, that the systems of permanent way described in the paper did not differ materially from the continuous iron way proposed by Mr. Reynolds many years ago, which had been tried and failed. Looking to the effects of frost, floods, and heavy rains, and to the great variations in the quality of the ballast, a continuous flat iron plate laid on the surface was never likely to be successful in carrying heavy locomotives at high speeds. For a long time to come, either the transverse sleeper or the longitudinal timber systems would probably be used, as they were not liable to be so much affected by the settlement of embankments, from whatever cause arising, the washing away of ballast, or the effects of frost. There might be occasions when it would be desirable to adopt some other mode than laying the line upon wood; as, for instance, when time was an object, and timber could not be obtained so quickly as iron, nor yet perhaps so cheaply. As the prices of materials varied very much at different times, comparisons of cost were practically valueless. The permanent way of railways ought to be the most perfect in construction, and the most conducive to safety and to case in travelling, whatever might be its cost. It was wrong to continue to use the same sizes of sleepers and scantlings of timber that were first employed, as the engines were now thrice the weight, and the speed had been doubled. To make a road fit for the description of locomotive and rolling stock at present in use, and to travel at the same speed, at least double the sum ought to be expended. The permanent way and the rolling stock could be made so as to be as safe for speeds of 70 miles as of 30 miles an hour; it was merely a question of money, there being no mechanical difficulty about it whatever.

It was said, that the conclusion to be drawn from the summary of advantages and disadvantages, which had been most fairly stated by the author, was the complete condemnation of iron permanent way. There was no advantage in first cost, and the maintenance was certainly more expensive than with a timber road, which would be free from the disturbances likely to affect the iron way laid upon the surface of the ground. There was also greater rigidity, and this told in two ways-first, upon the "life" of the rails and secondly, upon the rolling stock. The other systems of permanent way might be divided into three classes: 1st, longitudinal timbers with a bridge rail, or a modification of it; 2nd, transverse

sleepers, with a double-headed rail and chairs; 3rd, transverse sleepers with a bridge rail or a modification of it. The latter system was well adapted for light traffic, was inexpensive, and easily maintained. Either of these roads, when properly constructed, would enable the highest speeds required in a commercial country to be attained with safety. Attention was then directed to the comparative difference in the wear and tear of rolling stock and of rails upon a rigid road, and on a road that was more elastic; and the many tyres broken during the late frost, though no doubt in some cases attributable to an indifferent quality of metal having been used, had been caused, it was asserted, in many instances, by the rigidity of the permanent way.

It was stated, that the Reynolds' way consisted of a continuous cast-iron trough very different in principle to the flat wrought-iron sleeper described in the paper; in which the results of experience, on one of the best maintained lines in the kingdom, had been given, speculative opinions having been carefully avoided. The different roads alluded to by the author had been observed to keep in good condition, in all weathers, and under all circumstances; and the testimony of careful enginemen, who could generally point out any radical defects in the permanent way, was in favour of this form of iron way, as compared with the longitudinal timber system. At the same time it was admitted, that there were serious difficulties to be overcome in every form of iron road yet proposed. It was important that the system of permanent way adopted on each railway, should be capable of being laid throughout the whole length of the line, and of being carried through stations. It was doubted whether the continuous wrought-iron way was applicable in stations, or where there were points and crossings. The De Bergue cast-iron sleeper presented greater facilities in this respect, but a road laid on these sleepers had not the flexibility of a timber road. One of the things which gave the greatest trouble in most kinds of permanent way was the movement of the rail in its bearing. This was prevented in the De Bergue system, as the sleeper was bolted firmly to the rail, and formed, in fact, a bracket or extension of it. In a timber road this evil might be much diminished by reducing the number of fastenings; and in this respect the ordinary single-headed contractor's rail, fastened direct to transverse sleepers, without chairs, was to be commended, as being simple, inexpensive, and effective. It was contended, that practical men in charge of railways, invariably preferred transverse sleepers to longitudinal timbers, and it had been found that, upon the whole, the annual expense of maintenance was less with the former system. Thus, upon the road between York and Darlington, which was laid upon transverse sleepers, the joints of the rails being "fished" two miles were maintained for the same sum that it cost to maintain one mile and a half on the longitudinal timber system. The rigidity of the permanent way during frost was due very much to the want of thorough drainage in the road. By the use of creosote, the "life" of a sleeper was not terminated by its decay, but was dependent upon the period it would bear the usage it was subjected to. If the permanent way had to be constructed without reference to economy, which had not been the case hitherto, then no doubt great improvements would be made. It had been found advantageous to seat the double-headed rail, when using the ordinary chair, on a cushion of wood, endways of the grain. This plan prevented the indentation of the underside of the rail, and the motion of the trains over the line was easier. Steeling the surface of the rails had also proved beneficial. The cost of applying this process did not amount to more than fourteen shillings per ton, and the durability of the rails was at least doubled, as compared with rails made in the ordinary manner.

It was mentioned, that the plan of placing a wooden cushion in the chair under the double-headed rail had been tried many years ago on the London and Birmingham line, and was not found advantageous, as unless frequently renewed, the rails wore through them. In England, the double-headed rail was almost universal, excepting on the Great Western and a few other lines; but on the continent of Europe and elsewhere, a deep or broad-bottomed flange rail was most generally used, and it was to be remarked, that these lines had been constructed after experience had been gained in this country, and in many cases under the direction of English engineers. From this it was inferred, that the use of the chair, which had hitherto constituted the great difficulty with double-head rails, would in future be avoided. In forming the seat for the chairs, the scantling of the sleeper, which in most cases was already too small, had to be still further reduced, so that where the greatest strength was required in the support there was the least. Attention

was then called to Mr. Seaton's system, in which a saddle rail, laid on the apex of triangular timbers, forming a continuous bearing for the rail, was employed. Immediately under the joints of the rails a plate was bedded into the timber by pressure, so as to make the joint equally solid with the other parts of the line. This road had been laid on the London and North Western (at Bletchley), on the South Western, and on the Great Western railways; and it had been found that the first cost was something less than the double-headed rail system.

It was considered that, as regarded cast and wrought iron roads, as far as experience had gone at present, both had proved unsuccessful. The addition of an elastic medium between the support and the rail, as described in the paper, might, however, be the means of lessening the rigidity and thus removing the great defect hitherto attaching to iron roads.

It was remarked that engineers were now aware that a certain amount of elasticity was necessary in the permanent way of railways. Experience seemed to prove, that the transverse sleeper road, with the joints of the rails "fished," was the best; and that if chairs could be dispensed with, it was advisable; but the means of fastening the foot-rail to the sleeper were not what could be desired. It had been ascertained, that during the frost there was less destruction to the rolling stock on lines that were fished, than where that was not the case. With reference to the mode of fishing recently on two short lines, where a flat-bottomed rail weighing 62lbs. to the yard had been employed, the rail joint had in one case been "fished" to the sleeper, and in other the fish was suspended; when it was found that the difference was in favour of the fish attached to the sleeper.

It was said, that all the forms of cast-iron sleepers yet tried were unsuitable for many kinds of ballast, such as hard broken stone, flint, or other unyielding materials; and that it was doubtful whether wroughtiron bearing plates laid on that description of ballast would form a pleasant road to travel over, unless an elastic medium were introduced between the rail and the bearer. Several objections were taken to the continuous rolled-iron rail-bearer; for instance, that in passing round curves and at stations, amongst points and crossings, it would be difficult to bend the bearer laterally in the same degree as the rail, and to match the lengths of the rails and the bearers, so as to make the bolt-holes always correspond, and thus avoid the necessity for drilling fresh holes. The best form of transom for the longitudinal way was asserted to be a flat bar of iron, placed vertically, so as not to take a bearing on the ballast, leaving that duty to be borne by the bearer; as otherwise, when the road got out of order, a series of jerks were produced on travelling over the line, in consequence of the increased resistance at these points. It was contended, that though the use of iron as a railbearer was still in its infancy, yet in this land of iron, it was fair to conclude that improvements would be made in its application to this special purpose, and that iron ways would ultimately become the rule rather than the exception.

The statement, that whilst the weight of engines and trains, and the speed of travelling, had been increased, the permanent way had not been proportionately improved, was thought to be capable of some modification. Twenty years ago, locomotive engines averaged 15 tons in weight, supported on four wheels; now the weight was doubled, but there were six wheels, and the greatest weight on the driv. ing wheels rarely exceeded 12 tons. In the same time, the running speed, which was what told on the permanent way, had not been increased more than 25 per cent. On the other hand, looking to the permanent way itself, the rails now in use, taking the London and Birmingham line as an illustration, weighed 84 lbs. to the yard against 65 lbs. at the former period, and the chairs 45 lbs. instead of 25 lbs. each. There was also one more sleeper in each rail length, and the joints of the rails had been strengthened by the addition of " fishes." Only a small proportion of the unfortunate accidents that had occurred on railways of late years could be attributed to weak. ness of the running road. They seemed rather to be due to the giving way of some part of the rolling stock. On these grounds, the asserted insufficiency of the present permanent way, and the necessity for doubling the cost at the outset, were disputed.

In reply to the observations which had been made it was remarked, that the greater portion of the iron ways alluded to in the paper had been in use eight years, which, although perhaps not a sufficient time to allow of a decided opinion being expressed, was surely enough to enable some opinion, founded on experience, to be given. It had been said, that the systems described by the author had been tried and rejected

boards of directors to increase the expense of the way, in order to insure its efficiency. The hope was expressed that this discussion would have the effect of convincing boards of directors that some additional expense must be incurred, in providing better materials for rails, sleepers, and chairs, than it had been hitherto possible to get them to sanction.

March 5.-George P. Bidder, Esq., President, in

the chair.

The first paper read was a "Description of a Pier erected at Southport, Lancashire," by Mr. H. Hooper, Assoc. Inst. C.E. This pier was constructed at right angles to the line of promenade facing the sea, on an extensive tract of sands reaching to low water, a distance of nearly one mile. Its length was 1,200 yards, and the breadth of the footway was 15 feet. At the sea end there was an oblong platform, 100 feet long by 32 feet wide, at right angles to the line of footway. The superstructure was supported upon piers, each consisting of three cast-iron columns, and each column was in three lengths. The lowest length, or pile proper, was sunk into the sand to the depth of 7 feet or 9 feet. These piles were provided at their bases with circular discs 18 inches diameter to form a bearing surface. A gas tube was passed down the inside of each pile, and was forced 4 inches into the sand; when a connection was made with the water company's mains, a pressure of water of about 50 lbs. to the inch was obtained, which was found sufficient to

remove the sand from under the disc. There were cutters on the under side of the discs, so that on an

upwards of twenty years ago, and Reynolds' hogtrough cast-iron sleeper was cited as a case in point. Now, the continuous rolled-iron rail-bearer only resembled that plan in this respect, that iron and wood entered into the composition of both systems. Mr. Reynolds' sleeper was a rigid continuous trough of a V shape, bolted at the joints, and absolutely inflexible, although the hollow was filled with a wooden cushion; whereas the rolled iron way was only too flexible. It was urged that, speaking from speculation and not from experience, Mr. Greaves' cupsleepers might be condemned, as there was rigid iron resting on sleeper of the same material, placed immediately on the ballast. It was said, by engineers who had tried them, that they gave a great deal of trouble, and that the sleepers sucked up water from the ballast. There was a great difference between flexibility and compressibility. The term rigid had been frequently made use of in the course of the discussion. From experiments it could be shown, that between 5-feet bearings, the double-headed rail deflected less, and was more rigid, than the Macdonnell system; but as the double-headed rail was placed upon timber sleepers, forming a compressible cushion, it was not rigid; and for the same reason, the rail on the Macdonnell system being laid on a cushion of wood, which it might be desirable to increase, was not rigid in the sense of flexibility. In fact the forms first tried were too flexible, and that had led to the use of the T section bearer. It could be stated as a fact, that the maintenance of the Macdonnell system on the Bristol and Exeter Railway cost less than the other portions of the line, in the proportion of about half a man per mile. Taking that at £20 per annum, alternating motion being given to the pile, the sand it would be equivalent to the interest upon the was loosened. After the pressure of water had been additional outlay at the first outset. With regard to removed about five minutes, the piles settled down the action of frost upon the iron way, it was admitted to so firm a bearing, that when tested with a that was one of the difficulties of the system, where load of 12 tons each, no signs of settlement the ballast was bad, and the line was not well drained. could be perceived. The upper lengths of the But upon clinker ballast no difficulty of that kind had columns had cast-iron bearing plates for rebeen experienced, although on another part of the ceiving the ends of the longitudinal lattice gir. line, where the ballast was composed of particularly ders, each 50 feet long and 3 feet deep. The bad gravel, it had given some trouble. In reference centre row of girders having double the duty of the to Mr. Seaton's road, it was feared that it would be outside ones, top and bottom plates were added. The liable to work loose at the joints; and although, look-weight of wrought-iron work in each bay was 4 tons ing at the way the timber was cut to form the con5 cwt., and of cast-iron work 1 ton 17 cwt. The tinuous bearing, it appeared at first sight an economi- second bay from the shore was tested by a load of cal mode, yet the edges of the timber were liable to 35 tons, equally distributed, when the mean deflection be destroyed, and then the width of the bearing of the three girders in 24 hours was 14 inch, and would be practically reduced. The difference between there was a permanent set of an inch on the load the Barlow rail and the Macdonnell system, consisted being removed. in the interposition of the elastic cushion between the rail and the bearer in the latter; when that was removed, the bolts worked loose. The rails could easily be replaced, when required; but they had not been observed to wear out faster upon the iron way than upon the timber way. The rails and the bearers were punched at regular intervals, so that in putting in a new rail it could never be necessary to do more than cut off a short piece at the end; and as to the drilling, it did not cost more than one penny per hole, which would only amount to a small sum per mile. The system had been laid upon a curve; and in that case the difficulties which had been suggested were got over by making the bearers in short lengths, and having a greater number of joints. Many of the bearers were bent in the rolling process, and these were selected for the curves. As to the transom taking a bearing, that was not the case, because the transom was hollowed out. AT rail transom was preferred to a thin bar, because if the latter received a side blow, it would be likely to draw in the gauge. The different systems of iron way which had been tried over several years were so far not a failure, that they might be pronounced to have been to a considerable extent successful.

In concluding the discussion, credit was given to the author for the candid, practical spirit brought to bear upon the subject. At the same time was thought, that iron permanent way, at the present moment at all events, was not one which could be safely recommended. All roads laid upon embankments, or in cuttings, were liable to subsidence in a varying degree. It was impossible to believe, having a due regard to economy and efficiency, and to the fact of engines weighing 30 tons, travelling at from fifty to sixty miles an hour, under all the extremes of weather, of wet and of frost, that any system of permanent way could answer in the end which was not laid to a sufficient depth in the ground. The result of twenty-five years' experience went to show, that the double-headed rail, made of good materials, with properly proportioned chairs, and the joints of the rails effectively "fished," was as near to perfection as could be practically attained. In the construction of railways, the permanent way was that which perhaps had been the least attended to; and the greatest difficulty had been experienced in getting the consent of

The advantages claimed for this mode of construction were: 1st. Economy in first cost, especially in sinking the piles, which did not amount to more than 4d. per foot. 2nd. The small surface exposed to the action of wind and waves. 3rd. Similarity of parts, thus reducing the cost to a minimum. 4th. The expeditious manner of obtaining a solid foundation-an important matter in tidal work. Two hundred and thirty-seven piles were thus sunk in six weeks.

The estimated cost of the pier and approaches was £10,400. The works had been completed for £9,319, being at the rate of £7 15s. 4d. per lineal yard. The pier was designed by Mr. Brunlees, M. Inst. C.E., and the superintendence of the construction was entrusted to the author, as resident engineer, Messrs. Galloway being the contractors.

The second paper read was "On the Construction of Floating Beacons," by Mr. Bindon B. Stoney, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The various forms of floating beacons hitherto em. ployed were first referred to, including, among those whose axis of symmetry was horizontal or oblique, the barrel and the can buoys; and among those whose axis of symmetry was vertical, of which the cone might be considered the typical form, the Bell Beacon of Liverpool, the Nun Buoy, and the Egg; bottomed Buoy. All these buoys were characterised by want of conspicuousness and by instability. These defects had, however, been greatly remedied by Mr. Herbert's Cone-bottomed Buoy (vide Min. of Proc., Inst. C.E., vol. xv., p. 1). In this arrangement it was originally proposed, that the mooring-chain should be attached either to the centre of gravity, or to the centre of the plane of flotation. But this was said not to have been attained in practice, as the mooring-chain was fastened to a point nearly half way between the plane of flotation and the lower edge of the buoy, and considerably below the centre of gravity. If it were fastened to the centre of the plane of flotation, the author believed the buoy would become much inclined, under the influence of currents, in the opposite direction to the current, from the lateral pressure being below the centre of mooring, in place of above it, as was usually the case.

Being aware that additional keels, or bilge boards,

TION.

THE annual meeting of the members of this institution was held in Whitehall-yard on Saturday, the Duke of Somerset in the chair. After the business of the meeting had been disposed of Colonel Adair moved a vote of thanks to the Duke of Somerset, and added that it was a source of great satisfaction to find that the efforts made by the institution to promote scientific knowledge, and to develope all that concerned the efficiency of the two services should be recognised by those who were placed at the head of those two great departments, and that they should honour the institution with their presence on these occasions. The resolution was seconded by Sir G. Lambert and carried. The Duke of Somerset, in acknowledging the vote, said he took great interest in the institution, because he believed that naval and military science was spreading more and more throughout the country. He considered it of the greatest value to an institution of this kind to have lectures delivered, because there was a great deal of information on naval and military matters that would otherwise be lost. With respect to the particular pursuits to which both services were at the present time directing their attention there was much variety With respect to the question of iron, of opinion. for instance, the government had lately appointed when he came to test experiments upon iron, the first commission to investigate the quality of iron, because, thing he asked was, "What do you call iron ?" "Well," was the reply, "everybody knows what iron is." But when he sent for a person who knew something about iron, he was told that there was a great many sorts of iron, having different degrees of resist ance, and that the question required to be looked into. A commission had accordingly been appointed to investigate the subject. The noble Duke, in conclusion, expressed an opinion of the usefulness of the institution and the meeting then separated.

LONDON ASSOCIATION OF FOREMEN ENGINEERS. THIS association met at their rooms, 35 St. Swithin'slane, City, on the night of Saturday, March 2nd, for the purposes of ordinary business, and of hearing Mr. John Briggs' concluding paper on the "Resistance of Cast-Iron to Internal Pressure." Mr. J. Newton took the chair. The reader commenced by observing that

structed, but rollers are very inferior; they are always made of wood, and consequently not heavy enough for their purpose, though, from their peculiar construction, they are too cumbrous for the horses to draw. Of harrows, two kinds are used, both with wooden frames and iron teeth. The one is rectangular, and serves for light work; the other, called the Swedish, is triangular, and is used for deep harrowing. The latter is now considered as indispensable as the plough. Some years ago a very clumsy, heavy wheel-plough was in common use; it required two men, with four sometimes six horses. This is now entirely superseded by the swing-plough (after Scotch or American models), which requires only one man and two horses, and does its work better. Some of these are made entirely of iron, others are of wood and iron; the former form an important branch of the Danish iron manufacture; the latter are made on the farm or by the village blacksmith and wheelwright.

The hand implements have only attracted attention of late years; those now used are gene

rally made after American models,

The scythe is used for harvesting corn, and it

is here believed that a labourer can do four times

as much work with it as with a sickle; this saving of labour is of the more importance from the necessity of gathering the ripe corn before the storms, so frequent in this country, destroy it. In Jutland, as soon as the corn is cut, it is tied up in sheaves and placed in heaps, but on the islands it

is usually allowed to lie some days before it is sheaved; the first method is, however, rapidly superseding the latter. As earlier stated, the

has resulted in less attention being paid to the quality than the quantity produced.

The Making of Pillow-lace was introduced into the Danish monarchy from Westphalia in 1646, and was chiefly adopted as a trade in "Tonder" and its neighbourhood (in Sleswig). More than 1,500 females are constantly engaged in this way, and about 10,000 others seek an occasional occupation by such employment. This lace is strong and beautiful; it is generally made to order, and for account of some trader who supplies the thread and patterns. The bargains made are so close that these industrious people gain but a miserable pittance, seldom exceeding 24d. to 5d. a day. Making Wooden Shoes is principally the occupation of the peasants in the woody districts of Jutland: 600,000 pair are thus annually produced for sale, independent of these made by the farmservants for themselves. They are in general use, not only among the rural population, but also among the labouring classes in the towns. None are exported.

and porcelain are of superior quality, and many Potteries. The yellow Bornholm stone-ware graceful water-vases, figures, &c., are manufactured from them. But the only product of domestic industry in this branch is the black claypots, commonly used for boiling purposes all over the country. They are manufactured by females, principally in the south-west districts of Jutland, and are not only used in this country, but exported

to some little extent.

farm-buildings has been already referred to. It Brick-Works.-The use of bricks in modern has lately been forbidden by law to use timber as

the framework of houses in towns, and the manu

metal, which projects a short distance from the end of the moveable breech, and comes up to a shoulder formed in the end of the barrel when the breech is secured up ready for discharge, thus closing or covering the joint between the barrel and the breech. When the breech screw is screwed up tight, the square on its inner end passes over the square formed on the nipple, and thus screws up the nipple, and forces the cartridge case or lining a short distance into the barrel, and when the breech screw is withdrawn a short distance, and the slot or opening formed in it is brought opposite to the slot in the frame or casing the breech may be moved horizontally or vertically on its axis into a position to receive a fresh charge, which may be of loose powder and ball, or a made up cartridge, or ordinary Government ammunition may be used,

The breech frame or case is formed with projections to attach it to the stock or carriage of a gun or other fire-arm in any convenient manner.

The cartridge case or lining to the moveable moveable breech being ground or accurately fitted breech may be dispensed with, the end of the and forced up to the end of the barrel by the breech screw, as previously described.

Fig. 1 shows a longitudinal section, and Fig. 2 a plan of part of a gun or rifle constructed accorda is the moveable breech ing to one method. chamber, which moves horizontally on axes, these axes being carried by the upper and lower sides in position by a screw nut. The back end of this of the slotted frame or case b, into front end of which the barrel c is firmly screwed and retained

slotted breech frame or case b is formed with a

fruitful years is recourse had to stacking. During autumn, but especially in winter, the corn is thrashed; on many of the larger estates this is done by the assistance of machinery, but on the smaller farms the flail is invariably used, and with it a man can generally thrash from five bushels to one quarter per day; machinery is objected to because the straw is injured by it. Barley is usually thrashed with the flail, or horses are used to tread it out; the hummelling machine is scarcely known here, but of late the thrashing machine has been used for barley. The corn is cleaned by the assistance of either machinery or sieves.

The domestic industry of the rural population of Denmark is not only of importance in its pecuniary results, but from its influence on the moral and social condition of the people. The women in the agricultural districts commonly manufacture all articles of woollen and linen clothing used by the yeomen and peasants. The number of domestic weaveries in Denmark Proper was some years ago about 17,000: they are found more particularly in the poorer and less fertile districts, especially on the island of Bornholm. The product of these weaveries is readily disposed of to domestic servants and the working classes, who look more to strength than appearance. During late years the number of these weaveries has somewhat diminished, probably in consequence of the improved condition of the yeomen, who are now frequently clad in better kinds of cloth.

Wool-knitting is a national employment. In the heath-districts of Jutland, where it is most practised, children from four to five years old are taught, and consequently obtain great expertness in the art. Not more than from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. a week can, as a general rule, be earned by knitting; but then this frequently does not interfere with other occupation. Thus, while the shepherd watches his flocks, or when the labourer is going to the fields, he knits stockings, mittens, &c., without interruption: if the female servant is cooking, or sent to the fields to milk the cows, she knits all the time. Something like 30,000 to 35,000 English pounds of wool are thus annually turned into something useful, principally under-waistcoats, drawers, stockings, socks, and mittens. The quality of the under-waistcoats and drawers is so good that they are sought not alone in the country, but also abroad; but the foreign demand

in consequence.

Nearly all over the country brick-clay is to be met with, and in some places, of a superior quality. In the duchies 400 brick works exist, furnishing annually 100,000,000 of bricks, besides 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 of tiles, and about 1,000,000 of pantiles. In Denmark Proper smaller scale than in the duchies, and only supply 100,000,000 of bricks, besides a considerable number of draining-pipes. The fuel principally used is peat, but, when the works are situated near the coast, a considerable quantity of coal is used. Though the number of bricks produced in the Danish monarchy is considerable, it does not suffice for the consumption of the country, and consequently importation takes place.

there are 800 brick-works, but they are on a

on the end of which a key or lever d' is fixed, which when moved into or out of position screws up or withdraws the breech screw d. The screw or plug d is formed with a square passage at the front end to fit over the square on the nipple; and there is a slot or opening on one side through which the nipple on the end of the moveable breech passes when moved into and out of position

for discharging and loading the piece. The back

end of the moveable breech a has a female sorew cut therein (of the same pitch as the breech screw d), which receives the screw e of the nipple to close the end of the breech, and to this screw e

is fixed the sliding cartridge case or breech lining, made of copper or other suitable metal, which (when the parts are in proper position for discharge) projects a short distance from the breech chamber into the barrel, coining up to a shoulder formed therein, thus closing or covering the joint between the barrel and the breech when the discharge takes place. When the breech screw d is screwed up tight by the action of the lever d', the square on its inner end acts on the nipple screw e and case or lining f, to force the end of the case a short distance into the barrel, as before described, and when the breech screw d

arm in any convenient manner; or it may be secured as shown.

CAPTAIN GLOAG'S BREECH LOADING FIRE-ARMS AND CANNONS. CAPTAIN GLOAG, of the Madras Artillery, has just patented in this country "improvements in Breechloading Fire-arms and Cannons," which relate to the combination and arrangement of the parts of breech-loading fire-arms and cannons, whereby the moveable breech of such fire-arms is retained securely in position, and a tight joint is obtained is withdrawn by the movement of the lever d', between the end of the barrel and the breech, so the slot or opening in the breech screw permits as to avoid windage or escape of gas when the the nipple to pass or move outwards when the explosion takes place. For this purpose Captain moveable breech a is moved into position to Gloag constructs a gun or other fire-arm or cannon receive a fresh charge. The breech frame or with a moveable breech chamber, which moves on case b may be formed with projections to attach axes at or near its centre, such axes being sup-it to the stock or carriage of a gun or other fireported and carried by the sides of a slotted frame or case, into the front end of which the barrel is firmly screwed. The back end of this slotted breech frame or case is bored and has a female screw cut therein to receive a hollow screw plug, which is suitably formed for being screwed or unscrewed by a key or lever applied thereto; and this breech screw or plug has a square passage through it, and a slot or opening is formed on one side, through which the nipple on the end of the moveable breech passes when moved into and out of position for discharging and loading the piece. The back end of the moveable breech has a female screw cat therein of the same pitch as the breech screw just described, to receive the screw of the nipple, which closes the end of the breech, and to which is attached a sliding cartridge case or breech lining made of copper or other suitable

The advantages arising from the construction of guns or rifles according to these improvements will be seen from the following detailed description of the different component parts:

The nipple being in the breech of the chamber, the communication with the charge is consequently direct. The hammer strikes the nipple through the breech screw, which is hollow. The joint rendered gas-tight not only by the contact of the muzzle of the chamber and the end of the barrel, but also by their point of junction being covered by a copper or other metallic cartridge or lining, which is advanced a sufficient distance into the barrel by the action of the breech screw. The casing of circular section has a hole through it lengthways, and rectangular slots are cut in it

HUGGETT'S APPARATUS FOR LIGHTING AND EXTINGUISHING LAMPS.

sides; threads of a female screw are formed in both its extremities for the purpose of receiving the barrel and breech screw; and it has a notch cut in its right side, at its back end, for the purpose of allowing the nipple to escape in the act of opening the breech for loading.

The cylinder or breech chamber for containing the copper cartridge, has a few threads of a screw cut in its interior at the breech end, as shown, for the purpose of receiving the male screw attached to the copper lining.

The male screw, by means of which the copper cartridge is advanced into and withdrawn from the barrel, is firmly secured to the copper lining, having a square shoulder which fits into a hole in the breech screw; the nipple is screwed partly into this screw and partly into the end of the copper lining.

It will be seen by examining the section, where the copper sliding cartridge case is drawn in the way it is entered into the cylinder, that the sliding cartridge can only move outwards, as much as the male screw e exceeds the female screw (in the cylinder a) in length, which may be of a turn, and which is the distance the copper lining enters the barrel. The moveable breech chamber, composed of the cylinder a, the copper lining, screw e, and nipple, turns on two pivots or axes in the casing as before described. The barrel e screws into the fore end of the casing, and is secured in its place by a screw nut. The breech screw is hollow, the hole through it at the front end or that which comes in contact with the breech of the chamber is square for a short distance, it then widens towards the rear end, and becomes of a circular form; the square part of the hole through the breech screw fits the square shoulder on the screw e; by turning the lever d', attached to the breech screw, the pressure is taken off the joint and the copper cartridge is withdrawn from the barrel (into which it enters when the breech screw is tightened) by means of the screw e (the shoulder on which enters the square hole in the breech screw d), and at the same time a notch or slot in the breech screw is brought to coincide with that in the side of the casing, thus permitting the passage of the nipple, and allowing the chamber to turn on the pivots

into a position so that the operations of capping and loading can be readily gone through. The lever d fixed to the rear end of the breech screw, when the breech is closed, lies in front of the hammer, where it may be secured to the lock plate by a catch or other convenient contrivance; when the breech is open it is in the position shown in the plan, being turned to the left as far as a stop on the stock will permit. The hammer strikes the nipple through the breech screw, and is made with a projecting ledge or rim round its nose at g, so that it may be forced back to half-cock by turning the lever to the left for the purpose of loosening the breech screw and opening the breech. The half-cock, suppose the hammer to be resting on the nipple, or on an exploded cap after a discharge, then the lock may be so arranged that on turning the lever to the left the hammer will be forced back as far as the breech screw moves outwards, when the halfcock notch should catch it, thus the plan admits of the breech being opened, and the hammer raised to half-cock by one motion of the lever.

When the breech is opened, as at Fig. 2, and the operations of capping and loading have been finished, the chamber is turned into a position in line with the barrel (as far as the casing will permit), then it is obvious that the hammer cannot in any way fall on the nipple till the lever is turned down to the right for the purpose of tightening the breech screw, and firmly closing and securing the joint. The hammer may be raised to the half-cock in the usual manner with the thumb, then the lever is turned to the left to open the breech, the breech screw moves outwards a little, and consequently the hammer cannot touch the nipple till the breech screw is tightened or advanced in order to close the joint. The flash from the explosion of the cap may be allowed to escape at the side or sides of the casing through a hole or holes made for the purpose.

WHO WILL FOLLOW.-Edward Harris, of Woonsocket, R. I., a very successful woollen manufacturer, has been in the practice, for several years, of saying to large numbers of his workmen: "For every dollar that you will put in the savings' bank, I will put in another in your name." It is impossible for benevolence to be more wisely directed.

THE above engraving represents "a method of and apparatus for regulating the light in street and other lamps, whereby the relighting and extinguishing of the same may be dispensed with," for which Mr. J. Huggett, of Eastbourne, Sussex, has recently obtained Her Majesty's letters patent. This method consists in acting upon a tap through which gas is supplied to a burner or burners through arms, rods, or levers, worked by a diaphragm or piston which is made to rise and fall in a suitable vessel by air or other fluid forced into and drawn from such vessel.

a is a tap on the supply-pipe b, c is a bent supplypipe fitted with a regulating cock d, one end of this pipe is connected to the supply-pipe b above, and the other end below the tap a as shown, e is a rod or lever connected to the tap a, and at one end to a plunger f, the latter is connected to a diaphragm g fitted in an air vessel h, i is a pipe by which air or other fluid is admitted to the vessel h. The contrary end of the rode to that at which the plunger f is connected receives an arm k bent as shown to receive a shade l on its enlarged point k', m is a conical or partly conical case enclosing the apparatus inside the lamp n, part only of which is shown, o is the regulating tap on the service pipe. The dotted lines show the position of the working parts when no light is required, in which case the tap a is closed and a minimum supply of gas is admitted to the burner p, through the cock d, and beat tube c, as indicated by the