As regards the telegraphic reporting stations in
connection with the office we are told that all
were visited by Mr. Scott, the director, in the
course of the year, and were found to be almost
As this is
uniformly in very good condition.
the simple sum and substance of a tour round the
British Isles, we should imagine that inspection
might be economically dispensed with for a few
years, especially when we remember that there is
but a barometer, a few thermometers, and a rain
gauge, to inspect at each station.

sons do what is technically known as "pass-island with absolute fidelity, and will thereby throw future publication of the materials will soon have ing through the shops;" they demur to the a totally new light on the study of weather. The to be considered. It is obvious that if the mean necessity that their sons should wear the committee notice the method adopted for present- results, say of the wind, be found to be uniform same dress, keep the same hours, and be in ing these records to the public in a form available throughout the hundred sub-squares of a single for weather study, the first result of which, the ten-degree square, no advantage can be derived all points on an equal footing with the commonest or worst-behaved rivet boy in the "Quarterly Weather Report," has already been by proceeding to greater minuteness than a chart noticed by us.* We are glad to find that the or a table for the entire district of 10deg. lat. and works. They are, if wealthy, willing to pay committed intend to erect self-recording rain long, would require." Upon this we would rea heavy premium to a large firm such as gauges at all their observatories. The form of mark, that however one meteorological element is Penn and Sons, or Beyer and Peacock, and instrument adopted is that invented by Mr. dealt with statistically, all the others should be make their son a gentleman apprentice. If Beckley.† treated similarly; otherwise laws of correlation poor, they try to place the lad in the drawing cannot be sought for with any chance of success. office, where too often he is kept at work In this minute subdivision of work the committee tracing or lettering drawings, but seldom have certainly a most onerous and enormous task getting any practical designing to execute, before them. A bad or imperfect method of reduction, and combination of data will mar any rarely allowed into the works, and at the termination of his three years is worth what plan of publication entirely; therefore, too much consideration can hardly be given to this matter. he gets-twenty shillings a week. It is a The committee claim credit for the improvecommon thing for persons to say just now ment of deep sea thermometers, and for the carethat excellent draughtsmen can be had, even ful testing of these instruments, which have been in London, for this sum. We question it. of such invaluable service in the "66 'Porcupine Possibly two years ago, when the profession Intelligence of storms is sent out from the dredging expedition. A paper on these instruwas well nigh dead, they could be had, but office to 55 places in England, 13 in Wales, 26 in ments, accompanied with complete details of the scarcely now. Without doubt men who can Scotland, 10 in Ireland, and 2 in Jersey. The process of testing and verifying them under hymake a nice tracing or copy can be found, messages sent consist of an order to hoist the draulic pressure is given in the appendix, where but where is one to be had who can design drum, a signal signifying atmospheric disturbance also we find described Galton's pantagraph and any machine or part of one? Where is it existing over the British Isles, accompanied by a Beckley's rain-gauge. brief explanation of the reasons why it is to be Apropos of rain-gauges we are glad to quote, as possible to get a man who only needs to be hoisted. The message is posted up as it is re-entirely in accordance with our ideas as recorded told the object the chief draughtsman desires ceived, for the information of the public. It con- in the MECHANIC'S MAGAZINE for May 18, 1866, a particular detail to accomplish, and who tinues in force for 36 hours, and no longer, from that those supplied by the office "are on Glaisher's will be capable of drawing out a design that the time of its receipt (we think from the time of pattern, but have been improved in construction. will be at once practically correct, as ad-its despatch would be more consistent with They are of copper, and are neither painted nor mitting of being made cheaply-perhaps method) unless modified by subsequent telegram, japanned. Their aperture is circular, eight inches even made at all-and that will fulfil its which is frequently sent, either when the danger in diameter. The measuring glasses are of uniduties in the best manner? To work out is known to have passed over, or when there are form pattern, and are carefully tested before such a design, the draughtsman must be more signs of the approach of another storm. From issue. The receiver of the gauge is made deep than a mere drawing machine, he must have this we conclude that the officials no longer wait enough to collect at least eight inches of snow. natural judgment educated by practical exfor the actual appearance of the storm to announce It has a straight, sharp edge, without any flange perience in the shops. What can a man who it, but give forewarning of it just as poor Fitzroy or shoulder, so that there can be no possibility of did, notwithstanding all the obloquy they gave the rain splashing in or out. The receiver fits has never done anything during his appren- his system, though far more complete and satis-on and not into the vessel containing the collecting ticeship but copy or trace drawings-what, factory than the present. The weather sema- can, so that no water can be blown into this can we repeat, can he know of the necessity phores which the committee had on trial have at the joint." of considering whether a screw stud or been found useless, as we predicted they would bolt be most advisable to fit in a be.‡ certain place? How can he appreciate, or even properly foresee, the necessity of disposing nuts in such places as that the spanner can be applied to turn them. Such common practical points are essential in the education of any young man who means to rise in his profession. How can a mere copyist, a mere paper engineer, ever hope to get beyond a paltry £60 or £80 a year? Therefore the parent who proposes to make his son an engineer must weigh well the evils on the one hand of throwing his child amongst a very mixed society, with the knowledge that in so doing he exposes him to evil example sometimes, but also knowing, on the other hand, that he is securing him the most thorough and sound foundation for his professional education. This question parents alone must

a

decide for themselves.

port the committee chronicle the progress effected by the office in the several courses of inquiry, the commencement of which was described in their preceding reports, which have been duly noticed in these columns.*

The method upon which storm warnings are issued is said to be "gradually assuming a more scientific character, according as principles which seem to regulate the changes and sequence of our weather appear to be revealing themselves;" but this is only mere verbiage; we want to know the principles themselves.

With reference to barometers "the increase of heavy guns in the Navy has brought with it an increasing demand for the so-called gun' barometers, which were made under Admiral Fitzroy's direction, and specially adapted to resist concussion by surrounding the tube with thick indiarubber tubing. These instruments were formerly only graduated to 001in., but as the tubes and

the rest of the instruments were made with as

much care as other barometers the scales are now being graduated to thousandths of an inch, so as to render the instrument capable of as accurate reading as one of the well-known Kew pattern barometers."

"A daily weather chart is drawn regularly, and an abstract of the conditions of weather for each day is entered in a book and carefully analysed. The books are in monthly volumes, and each of them is copiously indexed, so as to afford facilities for the recognition of recurring types of weather." The account we have thus given of the salient All this again is mere statement, from which we points of the report will probably be sufficient to can form no opinion of the value of these docu- convince our readers that the work of the Meteoments. Specimens should have been appended to rological Office is in able hands and efficiently the report. controlled. In criticising it we are actuated only Again, we are told that each case of issue of a by a desire to assist in the steady advance towards warning message is specially investigated with the truths of meteorological science, which the respect to the weather recorded at the self-re-committee, equally with ourselves, are of course cording observatories, the telegraph stations, and anxious to attain if possible. by private observers. We ought, therefore, to have been presented with a well-balanced statement pro and contra the storm warnings. Nothing of the kind, however, do we find.

NOTES BY QUIDNUNC.

spending a large amount of money in the

THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE. The year 1869 has recently appeared as a made with instruments which have not been sup-improvements they are carrying out at Euston HE report of the Meteorological Committee for It is satisfactory to know that no observations THE HE London and North-Western Company is Parliamentary blue book. In this their third re-plied, or authentically verified, by the office are Station, upon which they can have no hope of a employed in the investigations; and that aneroid readings are never used. As regards marine ob-return in the shape of dividends. They have made servations all particulars bearing on the quality the station, by which the grand propyleum, erected a beautiful new thoroughfare from EustoL-road to and the mode of taking them, and any answers after a classic Grecian model, has been hitherto received from the observers, in reply to questions The most important feature presented by the arising out of their logs, are entered on a printed entirely lost. A fine view is now had of the grand work of the past year, as compared with its pre-form and bound up with the register for conentrance to the station, and the company is besides decessors, has been the organisation of systematic venience of reference on future occasions. No giving greatly increased accommodation to the operations in the discussion and publication of the specimen of this form is given, therefore we are arriving traffic by the provision of extra arrival results furnished by the self-recording instru- unable to appreciate the reference to it. platforms and cab-stands. This has been done by ments at the observatories. The committee, findthe purchase and demolition of a number of shops ing that at the end of 1868 the difficulties of and houses in Seymour-street, worth about £40 starting their observatories had been overcome, supposed to have become defunct, is not so, but a year each. The Pneumatic Parcels Company, resolved that a systematic publication of results their offices having been taken up by the company should commence with the year 1869. The continuous records, we are told, will be capable of are replaced by others. The Post Office departbeing utilised for entirely distinct purposes. On the tubes will henceforth be kept in active requisiment has, we believe, taken the matter up, and the one hand, they will undoubtedly furnish mean numerical results of accuracy surpassing anything which could be yielded by eye observations; and, on the other hand, they will exhibit the changes in atmospherical conditions which pass over our

* Vide MECHANICS' MAGAZINE, September 25, 1868, and September 3 and 10, 1869.

Captain Toynbee, the marine superintendent, is engaged sifting the meteorological data for the equatorial Atlantic into monthly sheets for single degrees by latitude and by longitude. This very minute examination is sufficient to indicate very precise limits for the respective trade wind zones, with the gradual variations in the direction and force of the currents themselves according to latitude and longitude. Very slight variations in the mean pressure and temperature of the atmosphere are also revealed. "The question of the

tion.

Yesterday, at Charing Cross Railway Station, we saw a sight that ought to modify the merciless feelings with which railway companies are often regarded. It was about a ton of Huntley and Palmers' biscuits, marked with the red cross, en route, via Luxemburg, as medical comforts for the

seat of war, the supplies being for the wounded of both armies. The packages, of which very many have been sent during the past week, are labelled in English, French, and German "the British Society for the Aid of the Sick and Wounded."

A great extension of the railway system in

sisted on.

The total gross revenue and expenditure of
British India in 1869 were

respectively NOTES ON RECENT DISCOVERIES IN SCIENCE AND THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.

both.

NEW SIZE FOR WOOLLEN YARNS-NEW METHOD OF RECTIFYING TURPENTINE.

received attention from the governments of India, the two principal Bombay lines, the Great Indian and large provision has been made for it. In 1860 Peninsula and the East Indian, there has been a there were 13,550 educational institutions, with great improvement in the traffic returns. The an attendance of 306,506 pupils, and an expendi- railway system of India is as yet, however, only in ture of £315,372; in 1869 the educational institu- its infancy, and the rich resources of the Great tions had become increased to 23,300 in number, Eastern Peninsula cannot be developed without and the pupils to 757,667, and the expenditure a large increase in its facilities for transport, from all sources to a million sterling. The three which need not necessarily be by the construction RESOURCES OF BRITISH INDIA. universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, of lines to cost £30,000 per mile, and that will with their 66 colleges in connection, are based absorb above half of the gross receipts for working LTHOUGH the past ten years have seen a upon the model of the University of London, but expenses and maintenance. Cheap railways are British India, it may be inferred from the cha-without rigorous uniformity of details being in- one of the great wants of India. Mr. Featherstone In 1860 there were 1,585 candidates Griffin's improved permanent way, and Mr. Robert racter of the modes of conveyance employed by for matriculation or entrance, of whom 628 passed; Fairlie's double bogie engines are well worth the the Post Office authorities that India has scarcely in 1869 there were 3,654 candidates, of whom attention of Indian occupiers, owners, and prodone more than commence, as yet, the establishment of the railway system. In 1869, for instance, 1,466 passed. In 1869 there were 498 degrees ducers. the mails were conveyed over an aggregate of conferred by the three universities. 50,281 miles. Of this total they were conveyed by runners, boats, and sea, over no less than 40,586 miles; by mail carts, and on horseback, 49,262,691, and £53,407,334. Of the revenue over 5,460 miles; and by railway, over only millions and a half, the salt tax above five millions land produces twenty millions, opium duty eight 4.235 miles. The increase in miles of railway and a half, the remainder being made up under PARIS DEFENDED WITHOUT GUNPOWDER-A open has been from 734 miles in 1860, to 4,235 miles in 1869. The passengers conveyed had numerous less productive headings. The public increased in the same time from nearly four mil- debt in 1862 was one hundred and seven millions N time of war invention is at rest or is conlions in the former year to above sixteen mil- and a half sterling, but under one hundred and IN lions in the latter, and the total receipts from three millions in 1869, and the interest payable a centrated upon improving means of destrucpassenger and goods traffic from half a million in little over five millions. The imports and exthe one year to five and a half millions sterling in ports in 1860 and 1869 were respectively-im- tion. Hence, the information given in this departthe other; and the net receipts from a quarter of ports £40,622,103 and £50,943,191, and exports ment of our Magazine, and which is chiefly derived a million to over two and a half millions sterling: showing a very satisfactory progress on for the two years, £28,889,210 and £53,706,830, from French and German sources, and does not The capital paid up was thirty-two millions at Of the fifty millions sterling of imports in 1869 often include improvements in machinery, is now 1860, and eighty-five millions sterling at 1869; the interest paid up to the one period was four about half the amount was from the United but meagre, and without interest. The proceedand a half millions, and at the other thirty mil- Kingdom, above eight millions from China, nearly ings of the Paris Academy of Sciences, which in lions sterling. The total amount expended at the six millions from Suez and Alexandria, with ordinary times offer us so much of interest, if not end of 1869 was over eighty-two millions ster-smaller amounts from the Arabian and Persian of value, are now of comparatively little moment. ling; the average aggregate receipts were £106,016 The sittings are very short. Evidently the Acadepore, Malacca, and various other places. The imper week, or £27 78. per mile per week. ports embrace about thirty-six millions sterling micians and the correspondents have their thoughts Returning to the Post Office, there were, in of merchandise, and fifteen millions value in treasure. turned in other directions than the promotion of 1860, 850 receiving-houses, and in 1869 there The merchandise includes fifteen millions and a science. It might have been anticipated that the were 3.710; the total number of letters and half value in cotton goods, over two millions and Academy would have been inundated with suggesnewspapers conveyed in 1860 was about fortyseven millions, and in 1869 nearly seventy-five a half value in cotton twist and yarn, nearly tions of means for destroying life; but such has four millions in metals and metal manufactures, and above one million and a half in railway mate- not been the case, and the first novelty we have seen rials, with numerous miscellaneous items. Of in the way of engines of destruction is that sugthe exports from British India the United King-gested by M. Delaurier, at the last meeting. It is dom takes fully half, or above twenty-five millions really nothing more than the Lenoir gas engine, value, and China above fourteen millions value, of which about eleven millions value is for the adapted to the discharge of projectiles. A mixture poisonous and destructive drug, that may be pro- of gas and air is exploded in a sort of cannon fitable for the Indian producer to grow and the and away goes the ball—to what distance and with Indian merchant to sell, but not good for poor John what velocity is at present rather a matter of Chinaman to consurae. There are nearly equal places and districts whence the imports come. volumes of gas to 100 of air ought, we are told, exchanges in exports with some of the other guess than calculation or experiment. The chief articles or classes of exports are cotton to produce the greatest effect; but the machine to (about twenty millions value), cotton goods, coffee, use the mixture is not yet in existence. It ought, dyes, hides and skins, jute and jute manufactures, ferred to), gums, spices, drugs, tea and sugar, with like a retort (the ordinary glass retort), the belly silk, leeds, grains and pulse, opium (as before re- says M. Delaurier, to be of iron, and to be shaped various other miscellaneous productions. of which is to hold the mixed gas and air, and the As the ball must hermetically seal the barrel, it tube, which must be long, is to form the barrel. should, we are told, have a wadding of lead. As the new engine will not foul, and will give no smoke, it may be used continuously, and there will be no difficulty in pointing it. How far it might, if it

millions. The revenue was, in 1869, £707,792, and the expenditure, £693,316. The number of covers conveyed is exclusive of books and parcels. The returns relate to the Bengal, Madras, and Bombay presidencies, the North-west provinces, the Punjab, the Central provinces, and British Burmah. There are no returns for recent years to show the extension of the telegraph system in India. In 1860 there were 10,436 miles of line open, which were increased, approximately, to 15,000 miles in 1869; the receipts increased from £53,319 in 1860, to about £160,000 in 1869, or probably much more, the last return being for 1867, when the receipts were £142,978, rising from £112,944 in 1866, £92,725 in 1865,

and £91,533 in 1864.

The telegraph system at home and abroad has been wonderfully rapid in extension during the last few years, and the exact figures on this subject would have been very interesting.

Upon public works in India the expenditure has millions in 1869, distributed amongst military works, civil buildings, public improvements and establishments, tools, plant, &c. The expenditure was amongst the three presidencies, the North-west provinces, Oude, the Punjab, the Central provinces, Nagpore, British Burmah, the Straits Settlements, Hyderabad, Rajpootana, Central India, Coorg, and Mysore.

risen from three millions in 1860 to above seven

Gulfs, and the Red Sea, Ceylon, Penang, Singa

The value of gold, silver, and copper moneys coined in India varies in amount from year to year. In 1866 the amounts were in gold £17,662; in silver, £14,507,079; copper, £269,337; total, £14,794,078. In 1869 the total amount coined of the three metals was £5,457,083 in value.

Seven

existed, be useful in the defence of Paris, is made The comparative statements relating to the clear by the following statement. Paris consumes shipping trade of British India show changes, but 400,000 cubic metres of gas per day. This quanscarcely progress. The changes imply the em-tity of gas may be made to throw more than a ployment of larger vessels, the numbers employed million of 60lb. shot-how far is not stated; nor is being much smaller than in former years, while it said how Paris is to be lighted during the The population of British India and native their aggregate tcnnage is increased. In 1860 time. Another suggestion by M. Delaurier is to states under British administration is 155,348,090, the number of vessels entered and cleared at ports store a mixture of gas and air in cellars, and in plus 46,245,888, or rather over two hundred in British India, including native craft, was houses carefully sealed, to be exploded at the millions. In addition to these there are states 41,648 of 4,898,952 tons; in 1868, exclusive of proper time (which everybody can guess) with containing a population of a little over half a British Burmah, the number of vessels was 23,162 of terrible effect. Thus the defence of Paris is to be million in all under the French and Portuguese 5,247,193 tons. In 1865 the rumber of vessels and conducted without the use of gunpowder. After Governments. The area of the whole is 1,558,254 tonnage reached their highest, the vessels being this, we may expect a renewed discussion on the square miles, and the total population 202,111,127. 52,893, entered and cleared, of 7,920,917 tons. In question, Is coal contraband of war? Thus particulars can be only partially ascertained 1868 6,588 vessels of 804,352 tons were entered from concerning the occupations, caste, or religion of Indian ports; 2,854 vessels of 344,340 tons from many of the districts." Of over one hundred mil- Ceylon; and 958 vessels of 948,387 tons from the lions sixty millions are returned as agricultural in United Kingdom. The numbers and tonnage occupation, forty-two millions as non-agricultural, cleared for the same destinations in the same year and one million unenumerated. Rather over half were not much different. The traders between a million of Europeans, East Indians or "Eura- Indian ports, it would seem, are vessels of about sians," and natives are returned as Christians, above 135 to 140 tons; between Indian ports and Ceylon, seventy-eight millions are Hindoos, about seven- vessels of 160 to 180 tons; and between Indian teen millions Mahomedans, over a million Sikhs, ports and the United Kingdom and North and above a million and a half Parsees, Jaius, and Bud South America, and China, from 900 to 1,000 tons. hists, and nearly five millions are "others." The population now referred to occupies 316 chief towns, with populations of above 5,000 each, 337,174 villages, and twenty-one millions and a half of inhabited houses.

The vitally important question of education has

The recent returns concerning Indian railwayswe are referring to the first six months of the current year, or, more properly, to its second quarter-are of a very encouraging character. For the first three months the traffic was unsatisfactory, but since a junction was effected between

A new sizing material for woollen yarns is the subject of a French patent. It is composed of 100 parts of hard soap, 50 parts of glue, and 15 parts of dried soda. These ingredients are dissolved together in as little water as possible. When used, 1 part of the mixture is diluted with 10 parts of water, and enough olive oil is added to make an emulsion.

Another French patent is for entirely removing the smell from turpentine, and so forming a superior kind of camphine. It is effected by rectifying turpentine over tannin, which is said, with how much truth we do not know, to remove all the resinous materials which give an offensive odour. So rectified, the turpentine can replace the best benzole used for cleansing, and gives a much better result.

GUNNERY EXPERIMENTS AT SHOE-
BURYNESS.

RE

It is mounted on a light Round 6 was with a live Palliser shell fired into 25 calibres-4.25in. five shells, as in the previous round. The central wrought-iron carriage with Madras wheels of the common shell was struck and exploded, but the same pattern as the new Indian 9-pounder fieldESUMING our report of the proceedings at fuze was not discharged; the other shells were gun carriage. The practice was made from a Shoeburyness during the last few months, blown about in various directions. The last platform on the sands on the plane of the range at we have first to notice some experiments which round, No. 7, was with a blind Palliser shell, which 5deg. of elevation with common shells of 2016. took place about the middle of April last. Amongst was fired at a row of five common shells, alter-weight filled with sand and plugged. Forty these was the firing of 7 rounds from the Vavas-nately loaded and empty. Beyond this row, 11ft. rounds in all were fired, the first twenty with charges of 21b. Soz. of large-grained powder, and the second twenty with the same weight of rifle large-grain powder. The first twenty rounds gave an average range of 2,088 yards, and right deflection of 11 yards. The second twenty gave an average range of 2,027 yards, and right deflection of 5 yards. The details of the practice showed that the large-grained powder, as used in the first series of twenty rounds, gave not only more uniform results than the rifle large-grain powder, but longer ranges in this class of small gun.

iron casemate shield.

The next experiment of general interest was made in the early part of July upon Colonel Inglis's scribed in our previous notice, so that we need This structure was deonly here observe that it is composed of three 5inch plates, measuring 8ft. by 12ft., with intervals of 5in. of iron scrap and bitumen concrete between them. The gun used was the 12-inch 600-pounder Woolwich rifled gun, and it was laid at an angle of 30deg. The range was 30 yards, the charge being 671b. of pellet powder, to represent the effects of the battering charges of 761b. of the same powder at a range of 200 yards. The first round was with a Palliser cored shot with sandcast body and ogival head, which hit the shield upon the proper left side, about 2ft. from the porthole, and midway of the height of the shield. A triangular piece of the front plate, 2ft. 6in. wide and the same height, was knocked clean out, the concrete was displaced, and the point of the shot left an indent of 2 in. deep upon the second plate. The head of one of Lieutenant English's ball and socket through bolts on the proper right side of the shield was broken off, having been put in tension by previous shots. Three large pieces of the front plate were hurled in through the port and cast on the floor behind the shield. Some splinters struck the timber supports 10ft. to the rear splitting one beam 12in. by Gin., and the lines of screw-rivets in the port-sill were started.

seur 7-inch steel gun, the object being, in the to the rear, was a similar row of shells, and
first place, to test an improvement which had been beyond this again four Palliser shells, alternately
made in the gas check_arrangement described in loaded and empty. An examination after firing
our previous article. In the next place, the object showed that one common shell had been struck
was to ascertain the initial velocities and the and had exploded, an empty one next it being
range at 19deg., 30min. being the highest eleva- hurled to a distance of 14ft. to the rear. The
tion obtainable from the carriage. For this pur-general results attained by these experiments are
pose the elevating gear was removed and the satisfactory, showing that by alternately placing
breech allowed to rest on the rear of the transom, empty shells between the loaded ones only the
a piece of wood being placed between them. The shell actually struck will be exploded. The target
initial velocity with 14lb. powder charges was
was, as might be supposed, severely punished,
1,220ft. per second, and with 221b. charges, every shot penetrating and carrying away skin,
1,410ft. per second. Three rounds fired with 141b. ribs, and timber supports piecemeal.
charges and 114lb. shot at 1 degree of elevation
gave ranges of 780, 767, and 773 yards respectively
Three rounds with 221b. charges and the same
weight of shot and elevation gave ranges of 944,
891, and 879 yards. One round with 221b. of
powder, 1141b. shot, and fired at 19deg. 30min.
elevation, gave a range of 7,466yds. After these
trials ten rounds were fired from the 10-inch
Woolwich muzzle-loading rifled gun to try a cheap
class of Palliser metal for projectiles and a softer
gun metal for the studs, in order to diminish the
difficulties of swaging. Out of the ten rounds nine
did well, one shell only-the second fired—part-
ing in two being apparently an exceptional case.
The shooting made by the gun was very good.
The great superiority of our heavy artillery
over the defensive armour of vessels of the
"Warrior" class has naturally raised doubts as to
the safety of the magazines and stores of ammu-
nition, which were protected only by 44-inch
This question was put to the practical
test about the middle of May by some interesting
experiments against the two original "Warrior
targets, Nos. 22 and 28, behind which groups of
shells were placed and fired into. The 9-inch
gun was used, being placed only 10 yards from
the face of the targets for the sake of accuracy of
aim. The gun was fired with reduced charges of
3841b. L. G. R. powder to give the striking
velocity due to the full battering charges of 431b.
at 200 yards range. The targets, although much
damaged from previous experiments, presented The second round was with a Palliser large
sufficiently whole spots for the purposes of this capacity shell similarly made to the shot in the
trial. It will be remembered that the "Warrior" first round, and containing a 15lb. bursting charge.
targets consist of 4-inch plates, backed by The hit was upon the proper right side of the
18in. of teak, supported by -inch skin, with shield in line with the previous hit. The shell
ribs 10in. deep. The shells placed behind the burst on striking, and turned inwards a semicir-
targets were common shells for the 9-inch gun cular piece of the front plate about 12in. in breadth.
weighing when empty about 2321b., and when The head and fragments of the shell then glanced
charged about 250lb., and Palliser large capacity along the face of the second plate, grooving it for
shells for the same gun capable of containing a length of about 10in., and turning the concrete
5lb. 12oz. bursting charge. Of this class also out behind the remainder of the front plate, which
were the projectiles which were fired from the was much cracked. A portion of the masonry
gun. The immediate object of the trials was to above the shield about 2ft. by 18in. by 12in., was
ascertain how far these projectiles when loaded jarred out besides several smaller pieces. The
would be safe when in the racks around the gun-front port stiffener was forced out into the port-
deck, or strewn about during action. Rows of
five shells or more were therefore successively
placed behind the targets in line parallel with the
skin and rears of the ribs and shot at by the gun
from the front and through the armoured target
itself.

armour.

The mitrailleur experiments next demand our attention, being both important and interesting. They derive their importance from the fact that it depends upon their results whether this class of weapon will occupy a prominent position with our troops, and their interest arises from the circumstance that the arm is now being practically tested on perhaps the most sanguinary battle field ever known. The "Fosbery "mitrailleur, as it is called, is a modification of the Belgian mitrailleuse, the invention of M. Montigny, which will be found described and illustrated at page 78 of our issue for July 30, 1869. Although America had long since produced her Gatling gun, which we described and illustrated last week, although France had her mitrailleuse as well as Belgium, England remained indifferent in the matter until Major Fosberry and Mr. Metford opened the question. This they did in a practical manner by going to Belgium, examining the mitrailleuse, remedying several defects in the working parts, and altering the rifling and cartridge. They then submitted their plans to the Government, and a mitrailleur was constructed in Belgium from their designs, and this is the weapon now under trial at Shoeburyness. The Fosberry mitrailleur may be described as a breech-loading compound rifle, the barrel being composed of 37 rifled barrels, hexagonal on the outside, and packed side by side in an outer circular casing, within which they are closely fitted and secured. The breech block is drawn back by a lever arrangement, and a metal plate holding 37 cartridges is dropped into two grooves which guide it into position. The breech block, which contains the firing apparatus, is then pushed forward by the lever, and the cartridges are forced into the chambers of the barrels. The firing apparatus consists of 37 pistons actuated by as many spiral springs, which are put in tension by the closing of the breech block. To fire the piece a serrated shutter is forced down by means of a firing lever, and according as this shutter is forced down quickly or slowly, so either volley firing or rapid file firing is produced, or even The mitrailleur is single shots can be fired. capable of both vertical and horizontal adjustment, the latter motion enabling it to sweep along the whole front of an enemy's column. The present weapon is mounted on an ordinary wood field carriage, which, although rather heavy for it, yet gives it stability and absorbs the recoil.

The experimental trials with the mitrailleur were commenced on the 11th inst., on which, and the following day, this arm was fired against the 12-pounder breech-loading rifled field gun, and the 9-pounder muzzle-loading Indian bronze field piece, firing shrapnel. The object was to compare the results attained with each piece when employed in meeting an advance of infantry or cavalry in line or column. The targets consisted of a line of thirty squares of boarding, 9ft. × 9ft., on which were sketched in white outline the figures of cavalry soldiers, and in red those of a body of infantry. The results of these two days' experithe rear plate, which was made during the pre- ments were not so satisfactory as had been anticivious experiments. On the whole, we do not con-pated as regards the mitrailleur. It had been sider this concrete suitable for the purpose to supposed capable of firing ten rounds per minute, which it is here applied. but the most that could be got off was three. The 9-pounder gun, although a muzzle-loader, did Agaiust this, however, it is to be observed that the mitrailleur was not in proper working order, the practice developing several defects which were easy to remedy. Thus, several of the cartridges failed, whilst several others stuck in the chambers owing to the cases being coated with paper, a defect which at once points out its own remedy -the use of metal cases only. In some instances, the cartridges prevented the closing of the breech block, in others, they prevented its being opened,

hole about 8in., the innermost port stiffener at the rear being also forced out about 2in. The whole shield was driven back at the top about 2 in. on the proper right, and about 34in. on the left. The concrete showed a decided tendency to bulge, and was readily displaced and spurted about on the The first round was with a live Palliser shell, entrance of the projectiles. This spurting action which penetrated and struck fair on one of six carries with it a powerful element of danger to the common shells placed behind the target. Two gunners, considering its composition, so that, takmore shells exploded, the other three being hurled ing into consideration the general effects, it would about but not damaged. Round 2 was a blind almost seem as well to leave the intermediate Palliser shell, six loaded Palliser shells being spaces open, giving the shield more mechanical placed behind the target. This shell pierced the coherence, such as is seen in the Millwall shield. target, but was deflected by an old hole; the The damage to the front was considerable, but it splinters of the skin knocked the six shells down, has to be borne in mind that it had been severely but they were not exploded. Round 3 was a handled previously. The back of the shield was repeat of the previous round, two shells were ex-practically unhurt, there only being one crack in ploded and another was broken in halves without being exploded. The fragments of one of the ex ploded shells were nowhere to be found, whilst those of the other were barely indicative of the explosion having taken place in the shell, although We have now brought our records down to the the charge had disappeared. Round was with present month, during which some highly in-better than this, firing eleven rounds in two minutes. a live Palliser shell, which was fired into five simi-teresting trials were made with the mitrailleur lar shells, part loaded and part empty, and three against the Gatling gun and light field guns firing live common shells. The central shell of the row shrapnel shells. But before noticing these exof five exploded, scattering the others right and periments we will refer to some which were made left, and exploding one of them. Round 5 was a on the 22nd inst., the object being to test the blind Palliser shell fired upon three live common range and accuracy of the bronze field rifle shell shells, fuzed and placed alternately with two Pal- gun. This gun is the old 134ewt. 9-pounder liser unloaded shells. One of the common shells was struck and exploded, breaking up the empty shell on its left and knocking about the rest.

smooth bore of the service, rifled and reduced in
weight. The gun now weighs about 11cwt., and
the rifling is in three grooves, and one turn in

experience. It by no means follows, notwith-meter, and 4ft. high, are rammed up in wrought-
standing, that one of this class will gain the prize. iron shells, which fit the converter, and are secured
We trust the adjudicators are well read up in the by set screws. As there are always duplicate bricks
subject, for they have a tough job before them.
prepared, the converter is thus out of use only while
they are being set in, or about half a day.

MENTS.

from causes, however, quite remediable. With re-
gard to the number of bullets thrown in a given
time, the superiority rests with the Indian field
gun firing case shot. The main point, however,
is the work done, and up to this time it was shown
that the mitrailleur made better practice than
either of the other guns, notwithstanding the hitches
resulting from imperfect cartridges. The next BESSEMER STEEL.-AMERICAN IMPROVE-
series of trials following the above were made on
the 24th inst., with the same guns as in the
previous series, and also with the Snider rifle.
These trials were resumed on the following day,
when the Martini-Henry rifle was also fired in
competition with the mitrailleur. Finally, all
these guns were tried again on Tuesday last, in
the presence of the Duke of Cambridge and a large
party of officials connected with both branches of
the service. In these experiments, the Gatling
gun was also tried with astounding effect, 400
rounds being fired with a small gun in 58 seconds.
Taking the results of these several series of trials
generally they are undoubtedly in favour of the
field guns firing shrapnel-especially the 9-pounder
bronze gun-and the small Gatling gun. The
We already find, and are glad to record as a
Martini-Henry and the Snider rifles did good guarantee of the success of this new manufacture
work, but for the present, and pending the further amongst us, that the old rule, so often illustrated,
development of which we deem it capable, the the British manufacturer is slow, and wedded to pre-
holds good in this as in other industrial arts: While
mitrailleur must be placed at least third on the cedents, right or wrong, the impatient and hard-
classified list. There are no doubt special pur-pushed Yankee strikes out boldly into new paths.

poses to which this arm could be successfully

applied in actual warfare; it is, therefore, to be hoped that it will be placed in competent hands to improve and perfect. This done, it would be

found a useful arm to the service.

PRIZE ESSAY ON IRRIGATION. was briefly announced in our last impression

Mr. Holley's various other improvements, which are in use in all the other works running in this country, are calculated to produce more steel from a given plant, and consist chiefly in the arrangements of casting pit, cranes, and machinery by which more steel may be manipulated in the same time by a given number of men. There are also many improvements in details.

Te late report of the Massachusetts Railway
Commissioners, and the opinions and practice
of engineers and railway managers generally, are so
favourable to steel as a material for rails, structures, The early difficulties of the Bessemer process in
and machinery, that we may now look for the rapid this country are now so far overcome-indeed, the
development of the Bessemer manufacture in this steel plant and machinery are so much better here
country. But in order to compete with the cheap than in Europe, that several new establishments are
however legislation may protect them in the start-States. The only remaining problem is the produc-
labour of foreign countries, American manufacturers, about to be built, both in the Eastern and Western
ing of new enterprises, must depend in the long run, tion of pig-iron suitable for Bessemer steel from
as similar enterprises have depended before, upon mineral coal. Extensive and hopeful experiments
the better and more economical carrying out of the are, however, in progress, the result of which we
manufacture, upon various labour-saving economies, shall duly record. The English Bessemer irons are
and upon a greater reduction from a given expendi- at present chiefly used in the American works.—
ture.
"Scientific American."

IMPROVEMENTS IN DOUBLE-FURROW
PLOUGHS.

The steel-making plant, down to the smallest detail, F
ARMERS have good reasons to rejoice at the
that Bessemer planned ten years ago, is still almost tural engineers of late years. We only recently
extent of ingenuity displayed by our agricul-
religiously adhered to by all the licensees in Eng-illustrated a single-furrow plough of an improved
land, while in an American works Bessemer himself construction, which had been invented by Mr.
would hardly recognise the machinery by which his
wonderful process is carried out. The talent and
enterprise of our pioneers in this new production
have not only overcome the manifold and serious
difficulties of untried materials and unskilled labour,
but they have been directed to a radical improve-
ment of works and machinery.

W. Woofe, of Bedford, who is now hailed as the farmer's true friend. This plough is acknowledged to be the only one which completely does its work, and leaves the soil broken up in the state it should be for mellowing or seasoning. It has competed I twats briefly announced in our last impression These facts became specially apparent by an exa- to none. at all the recent trials, and has proved itself second a prize of twenty guineas for the best "Essay on mination of the Bessemer Steel Works of Messrs. ever, did not satisfy the desires of that gentleman, The success of the single plough, howIrrigation, with Especial Reference to the Utilisa-Griswold, at Troy, New York, which have been re- for he at once set about trying his skill upon the tion of Sewage." From the title of the essay, it built, and are now running under the management double furrows, in order to produce one of suffimight be inferred that sewage irrigation was to Harrisburg Steel Works. of Mr. A. L. Holley, Jate superintendent of the constitute the principal feature of the contents, that the largest production of one pair of 5-ton three horses, and attended by one man only, and Official statistics show cient lightness that could be drawn by the aid of but when our readers have perused the conditions converters in Great Britain is 50 tons (10 conver-in this he has succeeded. In making these ploughs, of the competition, they will perceive that the real sions) in 24 hours. The Troy Works are regularly of which we illustrate two or three examples, drift is to elicit information respecting the irriga-producing 60 tons (12 conversions) per 24 hours, and Mr. Woofe has not neglected to make provision tion of gardens and farms. This may, of course, are preparing to work up a still larger product, for the rough wear and tear a plough is subjected be effected by sewage irrigation, as well as by which the converters seem to be able to make with-to in use. He has thrown an extra thickness of simply irrigating the land with water. It out crowding. appears that there is no particular limit attached to the and has lightened other parts, so that the framing metal into the parts bearing the greatest strains, length of the essay, for the conditions are "The is more substantially made than in ploughs in essays may be of any length, and may be written general. We understand that Mr. Woofe has tried or both sides of the paper, but the these ploughs in different soils, to test their capaadjudicators will give preference to the one which deals with the subject most comprefound them capable of being employed in any part bilities for light and heavy lands, and that he has hensively, practically, and briefly; the object of the country. being to obtain useful information on the sources of water supply for farm and garden purposes, and the best means of storing, lifting, and distributing, with a view to economical cultural results. The manuscripts are not in any case to whole bottom of the converter containing the old for cutting two furrows at the same time. The have the names of the writers attached to them, tuyeres is removed, and a newly-prepared bottom. frame is composed of two beams, both of which

on one

The essay

the tuyeres of the converters.

It is not, perhaps,

The principal cause of this large production is an improvement developed by Mr. Holley, in renewing generally knowa to unprofessional readers that the perforated fire-clay blocks through which the air steel, are so much burnt away after four to six conis blown into melted cast iron, to convert it into versions as to require renewal. The usual process of renewal is to knock out the tuyeres from the firesand lining of the converter, insert new ones, pour into the converter a mixture of sand, clay, and water, to level up the lining around the tuyeres, and

then wait for the semi-fluid mass to set; or the

the tuyeres by ramming and moulding the refractory
minishes the product of the works.
material from within. This, of course, largely di-

The improvement to which we have referred con-
sists in a simple method of getting at and ramming
the annular space between the converter lining and
the new bottom, from the outside of the converter.
The result is, that instead of depending on a loosely
set and dangerous mud joint, or of taking a day to
make a sound joint by getting into the converter, a
perfectly sound rammed joint is made in four hours
that is to say, four hours from the pouring of the
last conversion on an old bottom the new bottom is
set, and heated ready to receive a charge of steel.

but each must be marked with a monogram or containing the new tuyeres and the lining about
motto, and be accompanied with a sealed envelope them, is fastened to the converter, and the space
bearing a corresponding monogram or motto, and around it is similarly filled with the semi-fluid mass
enclosing the real name and address of the writer. of refractory material. This takes time, and involves
When the adjudicators have made their decision, great risk of the steel running through the loosely
the envelopes will be opened, and the unsuccessful set lining thus formed. A safer method is to wait
manuscripts returned to their owners.
from 12 to 20 hours till the converter is cool enough
to which the prize is awarded is to be the property to enter, and then to make the lining good around
of the editor of The Gardener's Magazine.' The
1st of October will be the latest date on which
competing essays can be received." The adjudi-
cators who will decide upon the relative merits of
the essays are Mr. William Haywood, engineer to
the Commissioners of Sewers of the City of Lon-
don;
Mr. Alexander M'Kenzie, landscape gar-
dener, and director of gardening to the Metropo-
litan Board of Works; and Mr. Shirley Hibberd,
editor of "The Gardener's Magazine." Considering
the very great prominence to which all matters in
connection with irrigation, whether by water or
by sewage, have attained, and the large amount
of information already extant upon the whole been more recently introduced at Troy, but gives
Another improvement, from the same source, has
question, a goodly number of competitors will promise of a considerable economy. The lining of
probably spring up in answer to this appeal. The the converter is a mass of fire-sand, crushed quartz,
essay will, no doubt, present the usual characteris- and clay, wetted and rammed into the iron shell of
tics of all such communications. Some will be the converter, around a circular pattern, so as to form
mere compilations, not possessing a shadow of a wall (say) 10in. thick. The pattern is then with-
originality, or even an attempt at an original com- drawn. As the material has to be rammed very
ment or remark. Others, again, will be all origi- solid, the process occupies some two days; and as
nality, and a large portion of their contents, in all the linings only last some 200 conversions-say a
probability, totally at variance with practice, improvement now in use at Troy consists in ramming
month-the time thus lost is considerable. The
science, and precedent. Some, again, will steer
the middle path, and the correct one, drawing which are dried and set into the converter, and form
up four immense hollow bricks, of suitable shape,
their information from the proper source, and its entire lining. These bricks, the largest of which
treating it according to their own opinion and is a hollow cylinder of 8ft. outer and 6ft. inner dia-

The invention will be well understood by referring to the engravings given, and to the following detailed description. Fig. 1 is a side view of a plough frame A having two shares B C fitted to it

are rigidly fixed by transverse bars D D. The have sliding plates fitted to them to enable the transverse bars may in some cases be slotted or intermediate bar E, which carries the shares C, to be shifted nearer to or farther from the side beam which carries the share B, and so regulate the width of furrow. The fore part of the frame A has the ordinary guide wheel E fitted in the usual manner, so that the plough can be turned at the headlands; the stem of the guide wheel on one end of a lever b,

carries a collar a

the opposite end of which is connected by a link c to the free end of a lever d centred upon the stem e of an additional or land-wheel G, so that when the guide-handle or lever H is moved over to one side or the other, the plough will move in the required direction, both of the wheels E and G taking the movement together. The stem of the wheel G in this figure is pivoted at ƒ to the side frame by a ball and socket joint, so that the plough by the lever h, the wheel G is lifted when its upper end g is drawn towards the rear of clear of the ground and held in that position by the handle taking under or into a notch in the strap i. This movement does not in any way affect the wheel E, as the short levers band d admit of it being raised or depressed in any suitable manner.

The additional wheel is shown on the outside of tig. 2, but no restriction is made to placing it in that the frame, as will be clearly seen in the plan view vantageous to place it inside the frame; and in position, as in many cases it would be found adlieu of connecting it by a link and short levers to the guide-wheel as before explained, it may be