[H]

[HH]

[HH] H

Nascent hydrogen. Common hydrogen. Hydrogenium. Granting the analogies, we doubt whether this is a view with which Mr. Graham would have coincided.

The temperature of the sun is of vast importance to us, but it is of no great consequence to know what it is to a degree. Mr. Lane, of Washington, however, has applied himself with great ingenuity to ascertain the exact temperature, not indeed of the sun's interior mass, but of the upper visible layer of clouds which constitute the photosphere. The temperature assigned to this is 54,000deg. Fah.! We present this calculation as a simple curiosity, but the author states that the train of reasoning which has led him to this valuation seems to require some modification to be made in the commonly received theory of heat.

According to a writer named Gratowski solar light exercises a remarkable influence on petroleum oils. Exposed to light he states that the oils absorb oxygen and change it into ozone without themselves forming any chemical compound with the ozone, which remains at liberty in the oil and oxidises anything it comes in contact with. The oils, however, are greatly changed when they contain ozone; they burn with difficulty, it is said, and increase in density. If in corked bottles the corks decay from the action of the ozone. We do not believe much of the above; but if it be true it is quite right of the author to recommend that petroleum should be kept in metallic cans, or, if in glass bottles, be put in the dark.

IMPROVED STEAM WATER-HEATER. THIS instrument is a conveniently-adapted con

PAPERS ON IRON AND STEEL.* 1.-A VERY COSTLY AND VEXATIOUS FALLACY. No. II.

Ttrivance to heat water by means of steam, and is especially intended to be used where large quantities of water at any temperature to 212deg. Fab. are in constant demand. The accompanying illustration will explain its construction and workThe figure in cross section shows an outer cylinder of brass, which is fitted to a basal piece having a central channel A and an opening at B, which last communicates freely with the cylinder's interior. Within the cylinder and upon the basal piece a hollow tube D of thin sheet metal, and furnished with four longitudinal grooves or depressions, is mounted; and its interior communicates with the passage A of the base. At the point of juncture of the latter with the tube D is a check valve C. An annular space between limits can be attained; and one of the advantages There are few results in connection with the pro

the inner walls of the cylinder and the exterior of D is thus entirely shut off from communication with the passage A and its prolongation within D, except at the upper extremity of the instrument, where the latter ends and the contents of both parts mingle.

visible.

An exterior view of the instrument is beside the sectional one, with the openings at A and B The operation of the contrivance is as follows: -An adjustment from the boiler furnishing the steam supply attaches by the screw thread of the opening B, while the water service is placed in connection with A. By the two openings, water

the liquid to which it has imparted its heat, they
pass out together, through the common outlet into
the reservoir appointed to receive them. The check
valve C prevents any reversion of the flow, from
whatever cause such an accident might originate.
It will be observed that the contrivance of Mr.
Mack differs from the methods of steam water
heating in general use in the essential particular
that, in place of direct introduction, he substitutes
a heat abstractor in the form of a large and good
conducting medium between the steam and water,
keeping them apart until the action is finished.
By regulating the influx of steam or water, any
desirable temperature within the well-known

claimed by the inventor is that his instrument
furnishes a simple method of accomplishing this
desideratum to a nicety. Being entirely noiseless,
owing to the keeping apart of the materials in
volved in the work, it obviates a highly unpleasant
and even dangerous peculiarity attendant upon
the usual system of direct introduction of the
steam; we refer to the jarring and thumping
with which all acquainted with the procedure will
In a variety of applications, too,
which have been made of it, an economy of time
is claimed. We understand, says the "Franklin
Institute Journal," that it has been considerably
introduced into breweries, by several institutions

be familiar.

New York Central Railroad, for the washing out

THE greatest enemy to steel is Phosphorus; one-tenth per cent. sufficient to produce serious deterioration, and even to render the harder varieties of steel utterly worthless. As our common English pig iron is made from clay ironstones, many of the nodules of which contain, as nuclei or otherwise, the remains of fishes and

other animal matter, they are exceptionally rich

in phosphorus; and thus all the difficulties of steel-making are greatly increased in this country. gress of British industry of which we have better reason to be proud than our pre-eminence as steel-makers, in spite of the greatest natural disadvantages; and this is the more remarkable from by illiterate men who have achieved it by followthe fact that so great a triumph has been gained ing out with a remarkably sound though unaided sagacity the strict method of true Laconian inductive investigation. Whenever I meet a formulating book-stuffed pedant, I love to tell him of the great unconsidered fact that while the learned men of the Middle Ages were muddling their of that period were true inductive philosophers, intellects with worthless disputations the artisans

and steam are now admitted simultaneously. The (prisons, &c.,) for bathing purposes, and by the and that the revival of science only commenced former passes into A, lifts the valve C, and enters when the men of the universities adopted the the tube D. The latter rushes into the annular and refilling with heated water of their engines. method which had always been followed by the men of the workshop.

space surrounding the central tubes. The tube D being of thin sheet metal, rapidly conducts to the cold water within it the superior heat of the steam without, the longitudinal groovings in its circumference being a simple device to increase the extent of conducting surface. It is claimed that the abstraction of heat is so complete that all, or the greater part of the steam admitted, emerges into the neck of the instrument, robbed of its latent force, as water; and mingling there with

The heaters deliver steam varying from in. to
2in. in diameter, and are made from 1lin. to 40 in.
in length.

A NEW railroad will be opened in a few weeks, in Russia, from Moscow to Smolensk, which is about 250 miles west of Moscow. This completes a railroad line from the port of Riga on the Baltic direct to Moscow.

the men of the workshop in recent times, it is If the men of the universities bave outstripped simply due to the fact that science has kept systematic record of its achievements, by means of which each worker has the full benefit of the labours of his predecessors and fellow-workers, and is able to start from the point where these left off; whereas the workshop observers and experi

* Reprinted from "Nature."

mentalists have worked with little or no systematic co-operation. If such co-operation only among one set of investigators has done so much, what may we not expect when it shall not only be ex tended to the other, but when both sections shall co-operate with each other? This technical and scientific co-operation is the great want of the present age. The artisan needs scientific education, and the professors of science have much to learn from the great mass of facts included in the practical experience of the workshops.

But I must not at present be carried further away into this tempting digression, but return to my main subject by anticipating an objection which will probably be made. The manufacture of puddled steel may be supposed to refute all I have said respecting the impracticability of producing steel directly from English pig iron. If steel fit for the manufacture of files, chisels, &c., could be made from ordinary English pig iron by this process all my statements certainly would be refuted, for puddled steel is simply made by checking the oxidation and arresting it at such a point that some of the carbon in the pig iron shall remain unburnt.

The facts connected with the manufacture of puddled steel which bear upon the present subject are as follows:-First, puddled steel of merchantable quality cannot be made at all from common English pig iron; second, the manufacture of puddled steel has been much more successful on the Continent than in England; third, only mild steel and that of an inferior quality is made by this process from English iron.

Referring to the first fact I may mention that there is a great deal of mystery, and there have labour, fuel, t many failures and much, waste of labour, fuel, and iron, in carrying out this process in England. In many forges where it has been tried it is now altogether abandoned, and where it is carried on with any degree of success there is usually much secresy maintained. Now the mystery is not in the puddling, as the necessary modifications in the supply of cinder and the working of the damper are well understood, and have been sufficiently explained in the specifications of abandoned patents and otherwise. The secret part of this process is in the selection of the pig iron, or rather of tho "blend" of rig iron, for it is found that a mixture of certain brands of pig iron is better than any single brand

used alone.

"blends

their carbon contained the smallest proportion of
silicon.

But this was not all. I had just concluded a
number of experiments made for the express pur-
pose of determining the function of manganese in
the manufacture of iron and steel, and had come
to the conclusion that its usefulness depends upon
its readily oxidising, even before all the carbon is
oxidised, and thereby affording a base with which
the silica could unite and form a liquid and readily
fusible silicate. Now this is just what is wanted
in making puddled steel, and hence I suggested
the addition of the highly manganiferous foreign
ore. He had recently discovered that it did just
what I expected, and supposed that his discovery
was quite new. Such, however, was not the case,
for this, like so many other trade mysteries, had
been independently discovered by a number of
other practical investigators.

effort, the most promising of any of the kind, on account of the action of the residual alkaline soda, was, through this serious mistake, never fairly tested. I witnessed some of their experiments and analysed and otherwise tested the results. There can be little doubt that with properly selected pigs a material similar to puddled or Bessemer steel may be made by this process, and by several others that have been tried and have failed; but with the common classes of English pig irons all such attempts to make steel directly by the partial oxidation of the carbon must of necessity fail, unless some entirely new, some hitherto utterly unknown method of removing the silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur of the pig iron is also used. In such a case the novelty, the invention, the triumph, would consist not in the decarburisation of the cast iron but in the separation of the other ingredients.

I therefore recommend all inventors who seek to simplify or otherwise improve the manufacture of steel to direct their attention first to the removal of phosphorus, next to the removal of silicon, thirdly to the removal of sulphur, and last and least of all to mere decarburisation, for that is a problem of the utmost simplicity, and already sufficiently understood.

My next paper will be "On the Chemistry of the Bessemer Process," and will include some original observations, the results of which I believe to be of considerable value to the numerous manufacturers who are now erecting or working Bessemer plant. W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.

POISONOUS LEAD PIPES.

The foreign manganiferous metal referred to is Spiegeleisen. Dr. Percy says, "Spiegeleisen has been found admirably suited for the production of puddled steel of the best quality, and accordingly it is largely used for this purpose." Now spiegeleisen is remarkably free from those impurities which, as I have stated, cannot be removed from common English pig iron without also taking out the carbon. I find that the average proportion of silicon to carbon in English pigs is about threefourths; in spiegeleisen it is below one-fourth, and that the average proportion of phosphorus in the samples of spiegeleisen which I have analysed is less than one-twentieth of the quantity contained in our Cleveland pigs. Three, four, and five hundredths per cent. is the quantity I ordinarily find in good German or Swedish spiegeleisen, and theulphur soldout y se udsagne-tenth per have recently heard, says, the "Architect," cent., and the large quantity of manganese mate- of two or very serious cases of lead rially assists in the removal of the silicon. It is, poisoning arising from the use of lead cisterns and in fact, very similar to the Styrian cast iron, leal pipes for storing and conveying water. It which, as I have already said, does not present teens strange that the old-fashioned lead pipe the English difficulty of making steel by the direct should continue to be used when a lead-encased process. Both are charcoal irons, made from re-block tin pipe, possessing all the good qualities of markably rich and pure ores. The manufacture leaden pipe (such, for instance, as strength, ductility, of cast iron from such ores and steel from such durability, and cheapness), and having none of its objectious, has been before the public for some time cast iron is mere child's play compared with our past. We allude to Haines's patent lead-encased native manufacture. block tin pipe, which is being supplied at the curIn reference to the second fact that the manu- rent market price of ordinary lead pipe of similar facture of puddled steel has been carried out more bore. With reference to the strength of the block successfully on the Continent than in England Itin pipes we have seen the result of some experineed only say that this confirms my statements, ments recently made by Mr. Kirkaldy, which prove as the puddlers there are less skilful than ours, to demonstration that the bursting strain of the and their raw material is a vastly superior char-lead-encased tin pipe is nearly 50 per cent. greater coal iron, such as I have already described.

over

the interier

A hollow

My own experience in connection with this subject has been very interesting, and is, I think, than that of the ordinary lead pipe; and it has also worthy of record. When engaged as chemist in The third fact, viz., that only mild steel of in- been discovered as the result of experiments made the works of Sir John Brown and Co., of Sheffield, ferior quality is made by this process, is further that the cohesive strength of block tin pipe was recently at the offices of the Glasgow Waterworks I made careful analyses of all the numerous confirmation of what I have said respecting the considerably more than double that of ordinary lead brands of pig iron that are used for various pur- necessity of removing the carbon from common pipe. The same result was subsequently arrived poses in these works. These I tabulated and kept pig iron in order to purify it sufficiently to pro-at from experiments made at the Liverpool Watercontinually before me in order to compare their duce good steel; for even with all this skilful works, so that we have conclusive evidence that composition with the special uses to which they selection of the purest pigs and the mixing of Haines's pipe is much more capable of resisting the were applied, and the properties which they or the spiegeleisen with them it is found in this country expansive action of frozen water than the common material made from them exhibited. The manager impracticable to make puddled steel containing lead pipe. Our readers would probably be interested of the iron department was a remarkable example more than one half per cent. of carbon. Such to know the process of manufacture. of one of those self-taught unconscious Baconian steel is only £t for rails, tyres, for rubbish cutlery, cylinder of lead is cast; at the moment of hardening, philosophers I have above alluded to. He has and other purposes where a very soft steel, or in dimensions to the contemplated bore of the pipe, and before it is completely cooled, a mandrel, equal during many years been observing, experiment- rather steely iron, is used. If the puddling were is inserted, and the space filled up with tin in a ing, and generalising his inductions, consisting of stopped when the carbon was only reduced to state of fusion. When the ingot thus prepared is a code of original rules for the manufacture of bout 175, or (say) 15. per cent. (the quantity nearly cool it is placed in a hydraulic press planned iron suitable for various purposes. Like the man contained in the best hard cast steel), the puddled to receive it, and the pipe is forced through by who had talked prose all his life without knowing steel would be utterly rotten, it would crush under mechanical pressure, which being applied equally it he has been following strictly the injunctions the hammer whether hot or cold; the reason of and exterior surfaces, the of the "Novum Organon " in discovering the best this being that even with the best English pigs, homogeneity of the metal is perfectly sustained of pig iron for manufacturing respec- the selected" steel irons," there would, with this throughout. The average length of pipe thus obtained without a flaw is about 150ft. As the pipe tively armour-plates, rails, boiler-plates, angle- amount of carbon, still retain a ruinous proportion is running through the press it is carefully watched, irons, &c, &c.; and among his other mysteries of silicon, phosphorus, &c. It is necessary with all and the instaut an irregularity in the surface is were certain blends for making puddled steel. available advantages to bring down the carbon to observed the length is cut off The tin lining These he calls his "steel irons." He selected within one half per cent. in order to produce a must, of necessity, be perfect throughout, for the these, like all the others, without having, or pre-workable material. Even then it is worth only moment the tin ceases to draw a wave or irregutending to have, any knowledge of their chemical about one-third of the price of good cast steel. larity is observed in the lead, and the pipe is at conposition. I might illustrate this subject still further by once removed. By quite a different path, i.e., upon purely theo-entering into the details of the chemistry of the We are informed that the men are very careful retical chemical grounds, I had determined that Bessemer process and of Bessemer steel by the not to allow any pipe to pass out of the press with certain brands among those I had analysed were history of the nitrate of soda process, and of other a flaw, as the terms of their contract with their the best fitted for making puddled steel, and was attempts to manufacture steel directly from cast employer provide that if there is discovered, when anxious to verify my theory. To have asked iron; but I think the above is sufficient to expose stock, the slightest flaw in a length of pipe the men the inspection is made before the pipe is put in directly for a revelation of the iron manager's the fundamental fallacy upon which all such are not paid for its manufacture. It will readily be secrets would have been unreasonable, and, there- attempts have been founded. I hope to have suc seen that as tin melts at a lower temperature than fore, I simply gave him a statement of the analyses ceeded more particularly in demonstrating the lead some difficulty would arise in soldering. But of these particular brands all arranged together, very great error of those who, in their attempts this easily obviated by the employment of a solder and called them "steel irons," adding that for the to make such steel, have, like the friend of my of which cadmium forms a sixth part. We are best work I supposed that he mixed with them a correspondent whose letter opens this aper, de-informed that the manufacturers are about to supply proportion of a certain foreign brand. "Hush. liberately chosen cinder pig or other inferior iron a solder made in the proper pr portions. don't talk so loud; I don't want these fellows to upon which to make their demonstrative experi- Other attempts have been made at various times hear you. Who told you that I use these?" was ments. This was the case with the Heaton Com- to coat lead with tin, but with very little good the substance of Mr. Jevons's reply. My theo- pany. They worked for a long time at Langley process, and by the more general method of drawing Tin has been applied by this electro-plating retical and his practical selection proved to be ex- Mill with one of the worst classes of pig iron they the leaden pip through a bath of molten tin, but in actly the same in result. He had selected just could have selected for their purpose. I pointed each case has been found unsuccessful. The tin has those particular pigs which contained the smallest this out to them in a letter printed in the washed off after a short use, in consequence of its percentage of phosphorus, and which relatively to "Chemical News," of February 19, 1869. This not having thoroughly united with the lead.

result.

caoutchouc, and provided with an external strengthening covering. It is arranged so as to form also a support to the rabble, and thus relieve the workman, who has simply to conduct it into the molten cast iron, the agitation of which is effected by the outlet of the air which escapes from the end of the rabble. In order to prevent the tube a from being injuriously affected by the high temperature to which it is subjected there is suspended at the side of the air inlet tube another flexible tube g (fig. 2) maintained constantly supplied with cold water from a reservoir, where it is compressed under considerable pressure. This tube is connected to the iron tube h, which is laid along the rabble to its extremity, and then wound round it spirally and brought back to its starting point, where it is attached to another flexible tube i, which serves to carry away the water which has become heated. A cock j is provided within reach of the workman for the purpose of regulating at will the rate of flow of the water in order to prevent its vaporising in the tube h. In the arrangement shown in fig. 4 the inlet water pipe h is laid in a straight line along the rabble to its extremity, whence it returns in the form of spirals or coils towards the handle.

Fig. 5 shows a modification of the preceding arrangements. In this the iron tube which forms the hollow rabble is dispensed with at the end which enters the furnace, and the spirals of the water tube h are brazed and welded together, thus forming a rigid durable tube of themselves. Whichever arrangement be adopted the rabble as it is constantly cooled by the current of water traversing over or around it cannot be deteriorated or burned by contact with the incandescent matters in fusion, or if so only very slightly The operation of puddling takes place in the following manner:-After having melted the cast iron on the hearth of the furnace the workman lays hold of the hollow rabble by the handle d, and after having opened the cocks c and j plunges it into the molten cast iron so as to submit every portion of the material to the action of the air in order to refine it. This operation may be arrested at any stage; thus it may be suspended at the desired point in order to obtain puddled steel, or prolonged to produce wrought iron. By the simple forms and arrangements adopted for this tool these various operations are facilitated and rendered more convenient. The rabble may be readily withdrawn in order to test the degree of refining of the cast iron. This method of

puddling at a high temperature admits of the
steel being run into ingots in lieu of withdrawing
it from the furnace in blooms as in ordinary
puddling.

With this new mechanical puddler it will be
advantageous to operate upon a hearth of silica
for pure cast irons, and for cast irons containing
phosphorus to a marked extent it is desirable to
operate upon a hearth of magnesia or of carbon
agglomerated with lime, in order that it may be
less liable to be affected by the basic matters
which the puddling of these cast irons necessitates.
For pure cast irons it is evident that this system
of puddling may be carried out with facility, and
will give good results, but the greatest advantage
that it presents is its application to the puddling
of the common cast irons containing phosphorus,
which it has been attempted to purify by the use
of raw tartar and alkaline carbonates, nitrate of
soda, chloride of sodium, hypochlorites, and such-
like reagents. But it is difficult to use these
reagents in reverberatory furnaces, their relative
volatility rendering the reactions very imperfect.
The contact between these matters and the cast
iron is purely superficial, and the stirring of the
workmen cannot sufficiently remedy it.

raises the capsule 7 and inserts in the receptacle k the reactive or purifying agents (such as salts or oxides) to be blown into the furnace; he then closes the capsule, opens quickly the cocks c and j, and introduces the rabble into the molten cast iron, into which the salts or reagents which are carried along by the current of air are forced in fine jets. When the whole charge has been forced in the rabble is withdrawn from the furnace, the cocks c and j closed, and the receptacle refitted; after which the refining of the cast iron may be resumed. This operation may be renewed several times during the working of one charge, but this is left to the judgment of the workman.

In the puddling of cast irons containing sulphur or phosphorus it is desirable to remove the slag or scoria containing the sulphur and phosphorus, and to replace it by scoria free from such impurities, which may be effected either by introducing into the molten mass oxides of manganese or titaniferous iron ore forced in through the improved rabble. By operating in this manner the whole of the phosphorus in the cast iron may be removed and pure wrought iron produced from the most impure cast iron. It will be readily perceived that this mechanical puddler facilitates the refinThe improved puddling apparatus or rabble ad- ing of the cast iron, since it relieves the workmits of the whole of these reagents being used in man of the more laborious part of the operation, a more efficient manner by driving them with the and since the stirring or agitation is much more air in fine jets through the cast iron, thus multi-energetic by the injection of air than by the orplying with the orifice the points of contact. For dinary method; a saving of time is therefore the puddling of impure cast irons this puddling effected; it admits of compressed air being apapparatus is provided with a distributing recep- plied in a practical manner to the puddling of cast tacle k fixed on the tube b, as shown in the draw-iron and to the manufacture of steel in a revering. This receptacle may be composed of thin sheet beratory furnace; and of the employment of remetal or malleable cast iron, the upper part being agents either as oxidants or as fluxes by being by preference contracted, and the neck closed by forced into the furnace. By its adoption the means of a capsule l secured by a bayonet screw quality of the wrought iron produced from phosor other joint. The lower part terminates in a phoric pig is greatly improved, and also a considersmall opening of about 1-8in. diameter, through able saving both in fuel and time is effected, which the salts or reagents employed (which are together with an increase in the daily yield of the contained in the receptacle k) fall into the tube a. puddling furnaces. They are carried along the tube a by the current of air under pressure and driven into the molten metal. In order that the pressure of the air may not prevent the salts or reagents from falling freely a small tube m is provided and fixed in the receptacle k so as to admit of the entrance of compressed air into its upper portion. The salts employed should be thoroughly dried and pulverised. The method of operating with the distributor is exceedingly simple. The rabble being out of the furnace and the cocks c and j closed the workman

Either of the above arrangements as applied to the rabble is applicable to tuyeres for metallurgical furnaces, whereby their durability is increased to an almost unlimited extent, whilst the use of the ordinary water tuyeres is dispensed with. This arrangement of tuyere with an internal current of water admits of its being plunged more or less into the furnace, and in general of its position and direction being varied without any deterioration resulting from their contact with the fuel or the molten materials in which they are immersed.

A

WATER SUPPLY.

the manufacture of lead pipe at Messrs. Easton, of raising this water at a minimum of expense, MONG the sanitary movements of the day Amos, and Anderson's factory, in Southwark, by we have the choice of three methods-wind, horse, what is probably the most powerful machine in and steam power. Of these, wind is, of course, there is not one secondary to this in its import-existence for that purpose. The power is an the cheapest, but then it is not always available, ance, whether regarded upon the grand scale for the requirements of large communities or for the hydraulic press, and the specimen we saw in and, therefore, in order to secure a constant supply, ordinary private use of every-day life. Our object operation was one of those specially manufactured it is advisable so to arrange the works that when in the present paper will not include the grander tannia Bridge over the Menai Straits; this will horses. The number of days in the year on which and actually used in fixing the tubes of the Bri-there is no wind the pumps may be worked by undertaking, involving a large ontlay of capital and extensive organisation. We shall confine our- give an idea of its power. Above the press and the horses would be required to work would vary, selves to a consideration of works which come the vessel that received the charge was a copper of course, with the different localities, but, perhaps, within the means of private individuals, and conof melted lead in a semi-fluid state. The receivers 100 days may be stated as the maximum; and clude by a notice of a few of the best and most vary in size, from one that will hold 2cwt. of lead this again may be modified by the introduction of recent inventions for various objects in connection up to 4cwt.; and when the charge is in, the the reservoir, which might be constructed of suffiwith water supply-from private sources or from press gradually rises and presses the lead through cient size to meet the requirements of the various public companies. a mandrel at the bottom of the receiver, from intervals. Where the depth is not great, and the which it issues as one continuous pipe, the size quantity of water required small, the old revolving and weight of which are, of course, varied at will chain of buckets may be used: it has the advanby the use of different mandrels. It will be seen tage of great simplicity, and may be readily kept at once what an immense length of ordinary pipe in order by the village blacksmith. When the is obtainable without joint by this process; in depth is greater we require force pumps, with practice, however, it is usual to cut the pipe off their attendant engineering appliances; and in in lengths of about 60ft., for convenience of storage the coal districts it will probably be found that the introduction of steam power will be more economical than horse power. But here, again, we are trenching upon a somewhat wider field than our limits permit; steam pumps and steam engines, as applicable to water supply, being legions in number, variety, and expense.

It is a not unfrequent occurrence in the erection of a large mansion in a country district to find that the consideration of the water supply has been deferred until nearly the completion of the works, and then extensive and expensive modifications become absolutely necessary.

We lately heard of an extreme case where the question was thus raised late in the day. The proprietor called in a consulting engineer, the result of whose first inquiries showed that one cistern of 500 gallons content was provided to supply a mansion, whose daily requirements were about 3,000.

The quality of the water available for use in villages and small towns is also now attracting general attention. It has been well ascertained that some of the clearest and brightest looking water, and most agreeable to drink, may be highly charged with the most deleterious elements, and careful analysis has elicited some startling discoveries on this subject.

One particular instance has come under our notice, where a village was swept by cholera, 400 deaths taking place in a small population in a comparatively short time. When the mischief was done inquiries were instituted. It was found that the principal supply of water came from one favourite well, whose water was preferred by the inhabitants to any other. The water was analysed, and was found to be charged to an unusual extent with decomposed animal matter; and a careful examination proved that the only source from which this could possibly be derived was by a subsoil communication with the drainage of the neighbouring churchyard! As another instance of how the eye may deceive in this respect, we saw, last week, a very bright and clear-looking sample of water, which was neither more nor less than the outfall sewage water from the model farm at

Romford.

Should the cholera again visit us, as in all human probability in the course of years it will, one most important means of checking its advance is by scientific analysis to ascertain satisfactorily that the drinking water of the population is wholesome and fit for the purpose. Of course, under different circumstances different courses are advisable. In the case of a mansion, where expense is no object, the work may be carried out in a way which would be utterly inapplicable to the case of a poor and small village, where every shilling of outlay is of consequence, although it may well, and often does happen, that the means of supply and the amount of demand are almost identical in both cases. The amount of the supply required will vary materially with the position of the locality and the habits of the people. Returns show that per head the supply at Lynn, in Norfolk, is 50 gallons per day; at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, it is as low as 10 gallons. As a rule, in agricultural districts, the requirement is much less than in manufacturing, the pureness of the air and the absence of smoke facilitating cleanliness to a great degree. Ten gallons, however, may be regarded as the absolute minimum with which every village should be provided per head per day, and the greatest care should be taken that its quality should be what it ought to be, and this can only be ascertained by careful scientific analysis. We may divide the sources of supply into six heads :1. Running stream.

2. A well of small depth.

3. Storage of rainwater.

and transport.

The action of water upon the pipes is another important point-as some water will destroy lead pipes very rapidly, and in this case the well-known symptoms of lead poisoning often occur; as a general rule, however, it may be stated that hard water is much less destructive to lead pipes than soft. The calcareous or similar matter with which a water is charged seems to form a coat of insoluble compound, which prevents further corrosion, while the soft water dissolves and washes away coat after coat, which it holds in solution with the worst effect, especially in the case of cisterns where the water is in contact with the lead for a considerable period at a time.

We now come to the last branch of our subjectsupply in the neighbourhood a little below the general level- e.g., a stream at a short distanceand for this another class of machinery comes into play, viz., the hydraulic ram, the turbine, and the undershot wheel.

The principle of the ram is, by the fall of a comparatively large body of water, to raise a small quantity to a greater height, and the profitable height to be obtained does not exceed twelve times limit at which it can be employed is when the the fall obtainable. The fall to the ram should never exceed 20ft., as then the strain upon the valves becomes too great. As the ram is selfacting it forms, in localities to which it is applicable, a most efficient and economical method of supply.

The undershot wheel, which is a slow motive power applied to drive the pumps which furnish the supply, must of course be slow moving and of large capacity in reference to its work, while the turbine inoves rapidly and can be associated advantageously with the force pump.

destructive influence on the lead, iron properly
When the water is of a nature to exercise this
protected should be used, and we may mention as
the best preparation for the purpose that has come
under our notice, a solution invented by Dr. Angus
Smith. It is of a bituminous nature, and if applied
when the pipe is perfectly clean is thoroughly
efficacious, as pipes which have been examined
after fifteen years' use have been found as perfect
as when laid down. And here we may note the
great advances that have been made of late years
in the manufacture of iron piping, and recommend
its adoption with proper precautions in very many
instances in place of lead; indeed, it seems as if
the use of lead by a plumber is a sort of habit of
years, dating from the time when good and efficient
iron piping was not to be obtained. Now, however,
not only are there certain advantages on the score
of strength, &c., but we scarcely need remark
that the iron pipe is incomparably the cheaper of
the two. It is not uncommon to see the whole of
the services and apparatus of waterworks, as
carried out by the engineer, with the pipes of
iron, and so brought up and connected with the
2. Turbine, working with a fall of 20ft.,
building to be supplied; the plumber then takes capable of raising daily 10,000 gallons to a height
the matter in hand and immediately lead, the more of 100ft., with pumps and rising main for forcing
expensive material, has to do all the remaining the supply to a distance of a mile, including
work. We know no good reason why this should supply-pipe down the village street half a mile
he, but look upon it as more a matter of custom long, but exclusive of connections with the dwell-
than anything else, and an error which will amendings, £650.

itself in course of time.

We conclude the present paper by giving an idea of the comparative cost of these methods, combined with an idea of the work they can do.

1.-Hydraulic ram, working with a fall of 8ft. and capable of raising daily to a height of 40ft. and a distance of half a mile, 4,000 gallons of the same water by which it is moved, with a supply pipe down the village street half a mile long, exclusive of connections with dwellings, &c., £360.

Water wheel, capable of doing the same work as the turbine, but working with a fall of 3ft. instead of 20ft., with pumps and rising main, but exclusive of house connections, £750.

Returning, however, to the various sources of supply to which we have above alluded, the first three call for no special remark, but with regard to the fourth-a supply in the neighbourhood of a Norton's Abyssinian Tube Wells, and many village from higher lands in the neighbourhood-other matters have all their bearings upon the there are many cases in which this supply is general question, but only as it were incidentally, intermittent-i.e., in the winter months it is and as our present limits are reached, we defer to ample, but insufficient in the summer. All that is our next article the question of centrifugal pumps then requisite is a means of storing the water so and several other mechanical improvements in as to provide a continuous supply for all the year connection with the subject.—“Builders' Trade round. To illustrate our meaning we will assume Circular." the case of a village with 400 inhabitants, to be supplied at the minimum rate above quoted, viz., 10 gallons per day. This will give a total of 1,460,000 gallons for the year's supply, one half of which must be stored for use in the dry months, allowing 50 per cent. for waste, evaporation, &c. Taking the depth of water at 10ft., the size of the reservoir will be about 4-10ths of an acre, and its cost may be roughly stated under ordinary cir

MR. CARPENTER, of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, has succeeded in putting into the field an automatic machine, which will cut, bind, and deliver its thousands of bundles of grain, without the aid of human hands, and without wasting a kernel. Trials made during the recent harvest showed that out of nearly 3,000 bundles, not above eight or ten would need rebinding; these had straw so short that it was difficult to get the cutter far below their

4. A supply in the neighbourhood above the cumstances at £400. The questions of rating, heads. Three acres were cut in 24 hours, without a

level of the mansion or village.

5. A subterranean supply.

advances, outlay, and returns are beyond our pre-bundle being missed; and it is believed that in an
sent limits, but it will be seen how easily, from ordinary clear and level field a span of horses would
our above quoted data, that matter can be reduced
to a simple point of calculation.

6. A supply in the neighbourhood below the general level-e. g., a stream at a short distance. And before going into the various methods of We next come to the fifth-the subterranean obtaining a supply from these different sources, supply-and the facility for obtaining this extends we may make a few practical remarks upon the very widely over the country. On the green sand first requisite in every water supply, and that is formations, the new and old red sand stone, and the pipes. the lower outcrops of the chalk, an inexhaustible We had the opportunity last week of inspecting | supply is at command; and now, as to the means

easily cut and bind eight or ten acres daily, and probably more. One or two small accidents happened, but were speedily repaired. It is not possible points of greatest strain before they are demonin a new and untried machine to calculate all the strated on trial. None of the defects had anything to do with the principle of the binder, but were merely deficiencies in the strength of one or two parts." Chicago Republican."