propeller blade or blades, the water is partly confined, and thereby prevented from spreading or from being thrown outwards, preventing thereby FIC.3.

A

the washing away of the sides of canals or disturbing the sand or dirt in the bottom of canals. When this improvement is to be applied to propellers required to operate forwards as well as backwards, the flanch or ring on the outer edge of the blades should project equally on both sides of the

blade or blades, but when the propeller is required to act only forwards, as in the case of canal boats, then this flanch or ring will only be required on the after sides of the propeller blade or blades. The outer circumference of this flanch or ring should be turned and the edges made sharp.

timber to Moscow by a direct road. The chain of
the Ural Mountains will be crossed, and the heart
of the mining districts in a country rich in coal
will be penetrated, the mineral wealth of the
empire being thus materially developed. Two
railways-if not more--will terminate on the shores
of the Caspian sea, one of which will run at the
foot of the mighty range of the Caucasus, which until
recently was only known to Englishmen by name.
Beyond this again we may look for extensions
into the rich trading districts of Yarkland and
Chinese Tartary.

ment was then entered into with the French firm of Messrs. Cail and Co. to work the line. They, however, failed to fulfil their engagements, owing to the condition in which matters were handed over to them by their predecessors. It is said that in retiring from the contract Messrs. Wynans gave up the whole of the rolling stock freshly painted, taking away all their books, so that no clue could be had as to the dates of construction of the carriages. The consequence was that breakdown after breakdown occurred, and Messrs. Wynans had to be called in again. The Minister of Public Works, however, in sending for those gentlemen stated as a reason for so doing that they were alone able to work rolling stock of such inferior quality as that they had provided. Messrs. Wynans carried on the line until 1868, when it was ceded to the Grande Societe des Chemins de fer Russes, as noticed in our previous article. Although the early history of this railway is in many respects very disastrous it has before it a bright future. At the present time the goods traffic is often impeded by merchandise accumulating for want of adequate means of transport, and its traffic must of necessity go on increasing with the extension of the railway communication of the empire.

Although many of the lines proposed, and even some of those actually surveyed, may not be constructed for some years to come, there can be no reason to doubt that they will eventually be made. Russia may experience a slight depression at first after such a speculative epoch as that which has recently marked the history of her railway system. But so great is her elasticity, and so marvellous are her resources, that she will recover from its effects sooner, probably, than any other continental kingdom could. She owes this vitality mainly to the circumstance of her great extent, and to the fact that she possesses every variety of produce she can require, and is, therefore, independent of foreign supplies. She has her own coalfields in An examination of a number of traffic returns the basins of Donetz and Moscow, besides subsi- of the various Russian lines, given in Mr. Rumdiary resources on the Caspian Sea, in Poland, and bold's report, shows an enormous increase in the other parts of the empire. She grows her own receipts in recent as against former years. The beetroot sugar in Kief, and exchanges it for the comparison of the receipts of some of the chief flax of Pskof or the grain of Tambof. She, indeed, Russian railways with those of the principal French is self-contained, whilst she has outlets for her lines in 1867 and 1868 is highly favourable for the foreign traffic on the Baltic, the Black, and the future of the Russian lines. It seems, indeed, White Seas. To Russia it undoubtedly remains beyond all question that the Russian lines must ere with her system of railway communication to tap long take their places among the most paying of the riches of Asia, so that she will eventually be- all European railways. One of their most remarkcome the great European exporter of Asiatic pro-able features is, as already observed, their being duce. In a word, Russia bids fair to take a so little dependent on the foreign trade of the position as one of the foremost nations in the empire for their prosperity. The enormous exworld. tent of a territory which, taken at its greatest breadth, measures nearly 6,000 miles, from Kalisch in Poland to Petropavlosk in Kamschatka, the great varieties of its climate and of the productions of its soil, necessitate an amount and intensity of internal traffic of which our western countries afford no parallel. To these general causes must be added special conditions inherent to the race and country, the favourable bearings of which on the question with which we have been dealing can hardly be over-estimated. In our next notice we shall touch on some of the constructive points in connection with the Russian railway system.

THE "HODGSON" TRAMWAY AT

BRIGHTON.

It is somewhat remarkable that St. Petersburg, although the capital of Russia, is being far out stripped as a centre of railway communication by Moscow, which promises to become the most important railway junction in Europe. In all other European states the centre of the railway system is to be found in the capital, whither the railways of the country converge. The circumstance that the capital of Russia forms an exception to this rule is due to its peculiar geographical position and to the nature of the region in which it stands. St. Petersburg remains, and is certain for some time yet to remain, the official capital of the empire; but the life current of that empire would HAVIN AVING in our previous article indicated the appear to be gradually flowing back to the old sources whence it sprung. Moscow and Kief bid present position and probable future exten- fair to become at no very distant period dangerous sion of the Russian railway system, we now pro- competitors for the seat of government, as in those the country ittell he will of the question upon cities are to be found the main centres of the Rus-WE understand that the Wire Tramway Cornthe country itself. It will be remembered that by sian railway system. From Moscow six great iron which has been working so successfully on the pany intend removing the experimental length the close of next year, according to present ar- roads branch off in all directions,-the first to the Downs at Brighton since May last. Those persons rangements, Russia will possess about 7,471 miles north, to St. Petersburg and Revel, connecting it who have not already seen it at work should do so of railways open and in work, and that by the with the Gulf of Finland; the second to the before the end of this month, or they will lose the opclose of 1873 this will probably be increased to north-west, to Smolensk, Dunaberg, and Riga, portunity. It will be remembered that it was erected 10,500 miles. These figures unquestionably indi- where it reaches the Baltic; the third southwards, to test the capabilities of the system for moving small cate great social progress; the relations hitherto to Orel and Kursk, en route-with connecting loads of minerals or farm produce with expedition subsisting between the people and their rulers are links, now in course of formation-to Odessa, Se- and at small cost from one place to another over undergoing great and material changes, which bastopol, and the Black Sea; the fourth south-hilly districts. The rope is an endless out and will be materially affected by the spread of the east, to Tambof and Voronesj, to reach the Volga tions varying from 37ft. to 75ft. above the ground. home one of ten miles supported on posts at elevarailway system. The national interests will be and the Don; the fifth eastwards, to Nijni-Nov- The loads are placed in boxes, which can be hooked promoted and the standard of the lower classes gorod, to be extended to Kazar and the Ural on to the rope at any point by hand, and run off at raised in a way which could not be effected by any Mountains; and the sixth in a north-easterly di- any point, by small wheels with which the hook political system, however well organised. There rection, to Sergievsa, ultimately to be carried to blocks are provided, running upon plates or siding is also an impressive meaning in these great rail- Pervu and into Siberia. Kief may be considered rails, so that the boxes can be emptied of their way extensions. A glance at a map of Russia as the central point of the western group of Rus- contents. The invention has met with great success clearly developes the strategical aims of the go- sian railways, although the lines do not radiate from abroad, and we have recently heard that the Government in connecting every post and military it as they do from Moscow. At Kief is the centre vernment of Turkey have decided to erect one or station with the capital. Russia is throwing out two long lengths in that territory. her lines into countries hitherto utterly unapproached by railway communication, as will be seen by the subjoined list of a portion of the projected lines, the total number being thirteen:

Perm to Tieumen
Sarapul to Tieumen..
Ossa to Yalutorovsk..
Lake Elton to Kamishin..
Orenberg to Buzuluk
Perm to Yaroslavl

Versts.
675
680
670
139

200
975

of the road running by Balta from Odessa to join
the great southern line at Kursk. East of Kief a
line will connect all the south-western districts
with the Baltic ports. West of Kief a line will
branch off to Brest-Litovsky, bringing the same
districts into direct communication with the rail-
ways of Poland. Branch lines will unite this group
with the existing railways of Austria, and with
those projected in the Turkish empire.

We have already referred in general terms to the financial history of Russian railways. It may therefore be interesting here to refer to one special The first three in the above list are Siberian circumstance attending the disasters in the past lines, whilst the last is a portion of the future working of that ruinous line, the St. Petersburg main line from Moscow to Siberia. The Lake and Moscow. The contract for providing and Elton line will carry the salt of the lake to the maintaining the rolling stock on this line, which Volga, and the Orenberg and Buzuluk railway was entered into between the Russian government will afford the most direct communication with and Messrs. Wynans, of the United States, was the central Asiatic provinces. These and col- based upon the most extravagant prices, and conlateral schemes, when carried out, will link Siberia tained some most embarrassing conditions. Messrs. with its exhaustless treasures of metals and Wynans' contract expired in 1865, and an agree

NEWS was received in Plymouth on Wednesday of the discovery by the colonial government geologists, Messrs. Sawkins and Brown, of magnificent waterfalls, far exceeding those of Niagara, which exist in Demerara, British Guiana. They are on the upper part of Potaro River, three days' journey from the colonial penal settlement, and within 100 miles of the capital of the colony. Although so near, comparatively, to an Europe settlements, they have hitherto remained unknown to civilised men, and are but rarely visited by the Indians, who have not appreciated their marvellous character. The falls consist of two leaps, one being a perpendicular of water measured in the dry season is 28ft. in depth fall of 770ft., and the second over 50ft. The volume and nearly 100 yards broad. The government of the colony have undertaken to open up the neighbourhood and give facilities to visitors. The Niagara Falls are 160ft. high.

IMPROVED TOOL OR CUTTER FOR PLANING, from London artisans, shoemakers, tailors, waiters

RABBETTING, AND SAWING WOOD.

with a population not more numerous than Scot- educated rank and file. "We don't want your system of education, I have cited the testimony of land, had, within a week of the surprise of the educated men, we want only men who will do what soldiers of long service, proving the superiority French declaration of war, a well-appointed army they are told," has been the answer given to me of educated over uneducated soldiers in the Engof forty thousand men, chiefly collected from by old military authorities. The elucidation of lish army. The characteristics of the uneducated manufactories, from workshops, and from count- this question is of great public importance. The rank and file are ignorant passion, wildness, panic; ing-houses, on the frontiers for observation; and education of the great body of the French com- of the educated, comparative coolness, steadiness, it is declared that had there been need of it an missioned officers is reported to be first rate. The self-restraint, and exact obedience. I showed effective army of two hundred thousand men, education of the entire body of the German com- that a national education would bring up the quacomplete in its field organisation, and declared to missioned officers is reported to be at least equallity of the rank and file to at least that of nonbe of as good a quality as the Prussian rank and to that of the French officers, and, to some extent, commissioned officers. It would be as if the rank file, and as competent to confront the standing superior to it, as being more sound and practical; and file were all of corporals and sergeants. I army of France, would have been ready to and it is stated to be throughout the line almost cited also the experience of the School of Mustake the field. Yet the expense of the Swiss equal to the education of the officers of our scien- ketry that success in shooting was, in classes, national army is stated to be no greater than the tific corps, the engineers and artillery. But, such generally as the intelligence. The common exexpense of our volunteers, whilst the Prussian as it is, the Prussian authorities are not satisfied ercise of the educated skill, however, is commonly standing army, of about a quarter of a million of with it, and they propose, on the grounds of mili- in shooting within a range of 500 or 600 yardsmen on a peace footing and three-quarters of a tary efficiency, to discontinue the education and ths range of the needle gun. But for wielding million of men in reserve, is maintained on a training sought for here of an exclusive standing successfully guns of a higher quality and longer budget of seven millions and a half sterling (as army or military caste, and to assimilate the com- range, such as the Whitworth, it was found that a against our fifteen), and the total expense of all mands to the civilian element of the ranks. Lieu- higher order of intelligence was generally needed. the German national armies is stated as at within tenant John W. Hozier, of the Scots Greys, the Military officers have objected to putting the arms ten millions sterling. The cost per man of the secretary to the Military Education Commission, of precision into the hands of our uneducated rank French army is 1,000 francs, or £41 13s.; of the in his general remarks after an examination of and file on the ground that they were incompetent Prussian army, by which it has been beaten, it is the Prussian system of education, states that the to wield them; they objected to putting into their 230 thalers, or £35; of our standing army it is feeling of the Prussian army "against preparatory hands breechloaders or repeating guns on the stated at £100 per man. But the economy and military schools appear to be increasing. A strong ground that they would fire wildly and rashly and efficiency of the principle of the national military opinion is entertained as to the narrowing effects soon exhaust their ammunition. This is just what force, as displayed in these instances, may be of exclusive class education, and a preference is has happened with the like uneducated rank and largely augmented, as I submit I have demon- very generally exhibited for officers who have had file of the French army. In their hands inferior strated, whilst the national elementary training the ordinary education of civil schools." And in use has been made of the superior weapon, the and instruction may receive a necessary improve- those civil Prussian schools to which reference is chassepot, which has a range one-third longer. ment by the transference of the greatest propor-made, there is just that predominance of elemen- In the hands of the better educated German rank tion of military training from the productive adult tary art and science instruction which has been and file, according to all testimony, superior use stages to the non-productive or school stages, such contended for in the Society of Arts, for the im- has been made of the inferior weapon. They have as we had displayed to the entire satisfaction of proved secondary and technical edcucation in this been cool and steady, and have fought more intelliField-Marshal Sir John Burgoyne and other dis- country. "The connection which exists in gently and effectively. tinguished officers at the review at the Crystal Prussia between the military system and the According to all testimony the German rank Palace. The general adoption of that measure general education of the country, is remark- and file have fully realised the anticipations of the would reduce, probably by one-half, the loss of able" says Lieutenant Hozier. "The porte-improved moral behaviour of a better educated productive power, even by national armies on the epee fahnrich examinations are not only based force, and it is reported that it is generally acPrussian footing. I have received the expression on the course of instruction at civil schools knowledged by French correspondents and by of a confident opinion from Prussia that if the but have been also used as a means of French townspeople that the German soldiers have principle were adopted there, and it is to be hoped raising the character of the education given at behaved, on the whole, better than the French that it will be soon pressed for adoption there, the these schools. On the one hand, the advantages soldiers have done to their own people. period of adult military service may be reduced offered to arbiturienten and to those who have from three years to one. In this country the been at a university"-widely different from our principle would tend to make the entire male universities- "indicate a wish to encourage men population of the country an inexpensive reserve of liberal education to enter the army as officers; force. It would, moreover, by the augmentation on the other hand, by making exemption from the of physical and mental strength and aptitudes, ordinary period of compulsory service in the ranks augment the civil productive power of every com- dependent, among other conditions, on educational munity, as proved, by one-third. attainments, the military system has been employed as an engine for stimulating education chiefly for the reason that the complete use of among the middle classes." He adds that the recent the new arms and of new methods of warfare was introduction of the "civilian element" into the not to be expected from old commanders unaccustomed to them. The French leaders had planned superior boards of military education is deserving an exclusively offensive campaign, which was at of notice; not merely the professors of the schools, once met by a counter plan, also on the offensive. but eminent men connected with the University But the conditions of defensive warfare in the of Berlin are employed upon them, and have a voice in determining the system of military edu-efficiency of the new arms of precision, and those cation." Austria, taught by the downfall of its not the most perfect, have been fearfully proved. Dr. Russell, the "Times correspondent, says:— standing army, is following the course of Prussia 66 One incident I have heard would seem to vindiin respect to the conciliation of its commands with cate the opinion of those who hold that the days the civilian element. In a pamphlet by the Minister of War on the necessity of reorganising armed with breechloaders, are numbered. The of cavalry charges against infantry in formation, the educational system in the Imperial army, he 8th Cuirassiers, superbly mounted, and most states:" "As the army is not only to be composed of drilled soldiers but also of generally well edu- gloriously led, came down on the 80th Prussian cated men "-meaning scientifically educated-infantry, and were met by such a fire that the and the spirit of the army, and to prevent the they were within 100 yards of the bayonets. "in order to improve their intellectual position squadrons were nearly annihilated by the time undue growth of drill and mere formalities it is of While retiring in confusion they were charged by great necessity that the military schools should be brought into harmonious concert with the civil

It is to be observed of the great lesson now going on on the Continent that to save France from the disaster occasioned by the defeat of the great standing army a levy en masse is called for; that is to say, that recourse is being had to what is, in fact, the principle of a national army-to levies of such civilian force as may now be obtainable. But a dreadful mistake is committed in ignoring the large changes of condition since the Republican levies of '92, when the arms in use were comparatively rude and were available with a little training, when the rank and file of the invading forces were comparatively ignorant and mostly little better than apathetic serfs, in

stead of, as now, of educated and zealous men,

ready trained to the use of new arms of precision of manifold power.

schools.

than those of the former, and it may be expected
The deficiencies of the latter are less
that they will be soon removed."

It may be urged properly that an expansion of our volunteer force, with commands equivalent in science and special instruction (and training in the ranks) to the Swiss and German commands, would bring up our army as a national force to the Swiss or the German national forces. Officers who are convinced of the necessity of such an improvement raise objections to it as to what Englishmen would or would not like, and whether Now, it is to be repeated, the French officers they would "like" even a reduced amount of have under their command a rank and file of men service in camp or under colours. But it being generally indifferently educated, and a large proadmitted with us that more extensive popular portion positively ill-educated, and some, the military training is expedient and absolutely neTurcos, in a state of almost primitive barbarism. cessary for the formation of a defensive force, if The Prussian officers have under their command there be immediate difficulty on account of the a rank and file of men generally well educated. demands of productive science in the adult stage, The French leaders appear, from their absolute is there not the greater reason for the immediate and boundless confidence, to have made the misand general introduction of it in the infantile or take absolutely of supposing that they had the juvenile stage, where there are no such potent same sort of rank and file to deal with as that wills of voters to be encountered, no such dislikes encountered by Napoleon the First, a rank and file to be met; but on the contrary, properly conducted, a great part of which had only recently emerged great liking and pleasure in its befitting bodily exercise. Would it not be wise to begin with this compulsion at once in the available infantile and juvenile stages, as a preparation for what appears to be required for a national force in the adult stages?

from positive servitude, and who were, as testified
by Goethe, comparatively torpid and apathetic to
the results of the conflict. They have had now
to encounter men of another generation, whose
patriotism and intelligence have been stimulated by

national education.

It is important to observe that the great con- In a paper which I read at the United Service flict is between a comparatively ill-educated and Institution on the gain of military force by the

have not paid much attention to the subject, with I have been challenged, by some persons who marked manifestation hitherto in this conflict of the supposed absence, as they considered, of any the growth of the power of defence over offence. I had anticipated this objection by stating the reasons why it would probably be little manifested

regiment of Würtemburg horse, and, it may be said, they ceased to exist. The colonel, the beau needle-guus, and came down, as his horse rolled ideal of a soldier, a stately, handsome, middleaged man, led the charge to the very line of dead, with a heavy crash in his cuirass." In another description of a battle, he observes:"When the excitement and the dust were over the mass of horses and red coats that lay upon the ground convinced one that it is mere murder to send cavalry now-a-days against infantry, unless they have tremendous assistance both from infantry and artillery." The correspondent of the "Pall Mall Gazette " gives the following examples of French cavalry charges:-"The cavalry then tried to do a little Balaklava business, but without the success of the immortal six hundred. took the guns in the Balaklava valley. Down came the cuirassiers once more, this time riding straight for the two field-pieces; but before they had got within 200 yards of the guns the Prussians formed line as if on parade, and, waiting till they were within 50 yards, gave them a volley which seemed to us to destroy almost the whole of the squadron, and so actually to block up the way to the guns for the next ones following. After this last charge, which was as complete a failure

We

extensively uneducated and a comparatively well-introduction of military drill as a part of a national | although most gallantly conceived and executed—

murder"

it.

MESSRS. MILNER'S SAFES AND THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

N with a request from a numerous

as the two preceding ones, the infantry fell back slowest. The breech-loading arms are now more banding of the standing army force of the existing rapidly towards Sedan, and in an instant the than twenty years old; Prussia was ten years in quality, unapt to regular industry, has supplied a whole hill was covered by swarms of Prussian advance in the adoption of the needle gun. Since heavy contingent to an army of paupers and tirailleurs, who appeared to rise from the ground. then, the volunteers in this country were warned mendicants. After the last desperate charge of the French from the Horse Guards against looking to breechcavalry General Sheridan remarked to me, "I loaders. The adoption of the Minie was followed never saw anything so reckless, so utterly foolish, very slowly by the Enfield, and the needle gun by as that last charge-it was sheer murder.'" But the Chassepot in France, and here by the Snider, if charges of cavalry swordsmen be "sheer by which it is exceeded, and the Snider is again as against infantry, with even the pre-exceeded in accuracy of shooting and in penetrat-compliant British Association some interestsent arms of precision, what is it to send infantry ing powder by a breech-loader of Sir Joseph Whit-ing experiments were made on Tuesday with Messrs. with the bayonet against them? Dr. Russell cites worth's, as well as by the Martini-Henry. If any Thomas Milner and Son's fire and thief resisting a passage from a letter from a French officer, who one will examine and consider the performances of safes, at the Phoenix Safe Works, Liverpool. Bestates that from a bayonet charge, out of a brigade the Adam's revolver, which, including reloading, tween three and four hundred spectators (including of 800 men, not above 50 returned. War such as fires twenty times faster than the old smooth bore, members of the British Association) witnessed the this the oldest soldiers declare they never saw and more accurately at the old firing distance; if experiments, and even the most prejudiced could before; that at Sadowa was mere child's play to he will consider how secure of his own life he not help confessing that everything was conducted An old colonel, on seeing the utter destruc- would feel with such a revolver, not yet intro- with the utmost fairness and impartiality, and that the results of the tests were highly satisfactory in tion of his regiment by the new arms, it is related, duced into the ranks, against an enemy coming every way. In the first instance an ordinary castwent into hysterics at the sight of the few who upon him with bayonet, sword, or lance, he may iron safe, without any fire-resisting chambers, and were left. The like destruction was incurred on form his own opinion of the state of military ad- one of Messrs. Milner's ordinary fire-resisting safes, the German side. Out of 3,000 men in one of the ministration in which old weapons are retained, of the weakest quality, were tested in a large fire battles before Metz not more than 200 were left. and how much defensive warfare has yet to gain composed of coal and wood, the result being, after These facts are in entire accordance with those I from science. two hours and a half, that the former was entirely previously cited as from recent French military destroyed while the latter remained intact, a £100 authorities, in justification of their declarations note and a large number of circulars which were that charges of cavalry and of infantry were no placed in its interior being wholly untouched. In a longer possibly that there was an end of combat second test one of Messrs. Milner's safes, containing avec l'arme blanche; that is to say, without an circulars, was consigned to a terrific fire, in which it a £100 note, several gold watches, and a number of amount of destruction of life which those same remained for five hours and a quarter without any authorities considered it to be impossible that civieffect of the flames-save a dulness in the colour of lised warfare could hereafter be conducted. the iron-being visible, while the contents were perfectly unharmed. Afterwards there was a testing of the locks, and those of ordinary use were shattered to pieces from the effects of the gunpowder, while Messrs. Milner's double patent gunpowderproof and thief-proof locks defied the effects of gunpowder and remained perfectly secure, after all the gunpowder (sixty grains) which could be introduced into them had been exploded. A number of attempts were also made to wedge open a safe, but without the slightest effect. Indeed, the whole of the experiments (which were conducted under the personal supervision of Mr. D. R. Ratcliff, one of the firm) were of an interesting and highly satisfactory character, and proved that for every purpose, and under any circumstances, Messrs. Milner's safes are perfectly reliable.

We see it stated for admiration, as a proof of heroism on the part of the French, that one standard had, during the battle, changed bearers twenty-seven times; but can rational people see in such exposure anything but wanton waste of force (to say nothing of its cruel wickedness) by the commands, and a reckless sacrifice to brutally ignorant passion. We see it noted that a battle field was strewed with Prussian helmets that had been shot through with their glittering spikes. What is such head gear but loading men with weight without defence? presenting the glint of objects for the aim of the rifle. And so with the cuirasses. The cases presented by the war were numerous of "mere murder," on which it may be submitted on recognised principles the commanders who continue the use of old methods with such certain results ought to be called judicially to account for the crime of doing so.

use.

The mitrailleuse appears not to have fallen into the most competent hands for its most effective The principle on which it was brought forward (as a rifle platform), and patented in 1858 by Sir Charles Shaw, was for use in numbers of the weapons close together, or in batteries, but the weapon has mostly been applied separately, and the Germans soon found out that they could avoid the direct fire of the single mitrailleuse, and that they could send forward rifle marksmen to the right and left of it, who shot down those who wielded it. If it were used, as intended, in batteries this would have been prevented, and in some instances, where it was used close together, the fire is related to have been as effective as was anticipated from it. One such battery, worked by three men, would have given fire more than equivalent to that of a company of infantry of fifty men, and ten or twelve of them would have been more than equivalent to an infantry regiment. Infantry only change position at about the rate of three miles and a half an hour. With three horses to each rifle battery or mitrailleuse it might change position at the rate of light cavalry, or seven miles an hour. It was proposed as an enormous economy of defensive force, as the recent very partial experience with the mitrailleuse

WEEKLY CHEMICAL, MINERAL, AND
METAL REPORT.

September 19.)

The conclusion which I stated was that the gain proves that it would have been. But soon after (From J. Berger Spence & Co.'s Manchester Circular it was introduced it was objected that a Whitworth of defence as against attack by the new arms of three-pounder, with its Boxer shell or its shrapnell precision appeared to be as three to one, and, in shell, giving off an equivalent or more effective support of that conclusion, I cited the example of fire, and with its case-shot for close quarters, and, the Confederate General Lee, by means of shelter with a hundred rounds of ammunition, weighing pits, keeping at bay the army of General Grant with four to one, and the conclusion is not inva-no more than a Hansom cab, would, with a three

THE war in Europe, which was expected to militate disastrously against not only the chemical but our other staple trades, has turned out better than was anticipated, especially in regard to the firstnamed. On the one hand the demand for America

lidated by instances where the assailants are reck fold range, do all that the mitrailleuse does and has increased through English manufacturers having

less of a sacrifice of ten to one. A day or two before the opening of the campaign an officer, who had served with the Confederate army, personally represented to the Emperor, as I am informed, his observation of the efficiency of the systematic use of earthworks as used by that army. But a campaign of attack alone had been planned, and when the reverse came only partial and inapt use could within the time be made of systematic means of defence. The Prussian official reports thrown up by the French been properly used they would have cost even more life than they did to the assailants. Instances are stated where the French soldiers, though protected by earthworks, were found to have fired so wildly and rapidly that they had no ammunition left when the assailants came up to assault them. The oldest works of regular fortifications could hardly have availed against the extraordinary German heroic determination to "storm" through the country for the attainment of their end, regardless of every sacrifice of life. But if the proper use of those defences would have so aggravated the destruction of the German assailants they may be asked to consider what they might, with their better educated rank and file, have themselves done with such works as defenders? It is stated that the Danish commissioners, who visited the French army, reported their belief that it was incompetent to the most effective use of the new arms of precision and new works. When I stated the gain of offence over defence it would be implied from what I had said as meaning in competent educated

state that had such defensive earthworks as were

hands.

It is to be observed, however, that neither side appear to have been up to the progress of mechanical art and science in the adoption of the best of the new arms of precision. With the old commands the progress of art and science is of the

more. This may be taken to have been demon-
strated by some recent experiments at Shoebury-
ness with, in important respects, an inferior gun
and shrapnell shell.

a

bottoms to that country being almost suspendedmonopoly-exportations in French and German and the prices of several chemicals have risen there. Bleaching powder alone, it is stated, has advanced So far as the present war has gone I submit it 25 per cent., and latest advices show even a slight offers a lesson that old and unscientific com- increase on this. On the other hand, French producers manders, habituated only to old weapons, cannot have been anxious to realise their stocks, and as be expected to adopt readily or completely the they prefer selling to English houses this has told somewhat seriously against manufacturers in some new arms which science and art has provided for departments. There is the prospect, however, of commanders will be needed to achieve the full and creasing the trade here for some time, although it defensive warfare, and that new and appropriate this exhaustion of French produce ultimately inlarge gain of defence over attack, demonstrated has the effect of temporarily checking it. During even by the scattered and as yet partial use of the past week the market in most departments has second-rate and comparatively inferior weapons of been steady. There has been no rise or depression precision. It shows that in the future of war vic-in prices worthy of note, and alkalies close at last tory will be to science and art applied with edu-week's prices, but with signs of increasing firmness. Soda ash, caustic soda, &c., are exceedingly firm. cated zeal. It shows that national education, so Minerals are unchanged both in consumption and far as it has gone with the present generation of value. There is again no improvement to report in Germans, has relieved them from the proverbial metals, but although business continues on the most slowness of apprehension and clumsiness of exe-limited scale, prices remain almost unaltered; and cution of the last generation, and given them the with any approach to a cessation of hostilities they superior alertness, the daring, and the elan which would be certain to improve instantly. Scotch pig iron has maintained its value; and, together with once belonged to their adversaries. In the other Cleveland, is selling pretty freely. metals there is little doing. Soda: cream caustic is exceedingly firm at £12 10s. for 60; and white, at £13 5s. to £13 10s.; soda crystals active, at £4 2s. 6d. to £4 58.; soda ash improved, at 1 11-16d. to 1 d. per degree; bi-carbonate heavy, at £9 10s., and £15 for refined; saltcake, £3; sulphate of soda, £3. Nitrate of soda: lower, and in ordinary request at £14 to £14 10s. Potash: muriates; the blockade, it is reported, having now ceased to be effective, it is hoped that shipments will soon resume their normal trammelled with such conditions as to be impracticState parcels are now offered at Hamburgh, but able for business; prussiate: yellow, 114d.; red, Is. 8d. to 18. 9d.; Prussian blue, 1s. 6d. to 2s. Saltpetre: there are few sales to report; foreign, 30s. to 32s.; refined, at 31s. Alum: in average inquiry; loose lump, at £6 53. and £7 in export barrels; ground, at £7. Ammonia: brown sulphate

If the present war were to close, leaving a standing army in France, the men remaining as soldiers would all return to camp and barrack, a continued burden to the exhausted country and to themselves, constituting, with their augmented ranks, a pernicious war interest. When peace happily arrives to the national educated army all those remaining of it, after large unnecessary havoc, which consummate strategy and victory does not exonerate, will, for the greater part, return to their homes, indisposed to future war, except under the mest dire necessity, and will relieve the country of the burden of their continued maintenance, and recruit its strength by renewed productive labour in the pursuit of arts, manufactures, and commerce. In my experience in poor-law administration in England the dis

(7s. 6d.), Longmans. Spon's "Engineer's Dictionary,"
now publishing in 1s. parts, article "Artillery."
W. RILEY.-We have referred back as far as 1865, but
cannot find the article on " Paper Graining."

RECEIVED.-J. N. L.-H. W. W.-B. J. W.-W. S.
W. M. D.-W. P. W.-H. P. J.-T. B. M.-T. W. H-
W. J. L.-T. H. W.-W. T. W.-F. W. H.-J. S. B.-
W. T. W.

per gallon; pure white Norwegian cod-liver oil at Habal, Military, and Gunnery Items.

in steady inquiry; white and grey lower, at £15 to
£15 10s. Copperas: dry, unchanged, at 52s. ; green
and rusty rather better, at 50s. to 54s. Arsenic: at
£6 15s. to £7 5s. for fine powdered. Acid oxalic,
at 7 d. to 8d.; tartaric firm, at 1s. 3d. to 1s. 4d.;
sulphuric, at £3 58. to £3 10s. Magnesia: Epsom
salts, at £4 10s. to £4 15s. for refined. Oils: olive,
a fair business done at £48 to £50; lubricating oil,
best refined in tolerable request at from 2s. to 5s.
£9 10s. per barrel. Pitch remains dull. Benzole :
very limited business transacted, at 2s. to 2s. 3d. A NEW helmet, made of cork, to be worn by
for 30. Disinfectants: patent, at £5 per ton for officers of the Royal Artillery in India, has been
corporations: carbolic, at £10. China clay: 22s. manufactured at Woolwich. It is white and sur-
per ton.
Pyrites: the market is very firm, and mounted by a brass spike 2in. in length, something
higher quotations are named for next year's delivery, similar to those worn by the Prussian Artillery.
owing to the great demand for the calcined, which
A CORRESPONDENT from Sheffield sends the
is in request at 43s. 6d. R.C. Lime: bleaching following advertisement in the New York Journal
powder maintains the advance, and is firmly held, of Commerce," in proof that other countries have
at £8 to £8 58.; super-phosphates firm; at £4 5s. to breech-loaders for sale besides our own:-"Schuyler,
£4 108.; mineral phosphates, 56s. to 60s. for 65. Hartley, and Graham, agents, 19, Maiden-lane, New
Manganese: very dull, and prices receding, quota-York. We have ready for immediate shipment
tions about 1s. per unit. Iron ore: remains un- 10,000 Remington breech-loaders, 10,000 Sharp's
changed; hematite, at 13s.; oolitic, at 6s. 9d. to breech-loaders, 3,000 Spencer carbines,
2,000
8s. 6d. in Staffordshire, and 9s. 9d. free on rails.
METALS.-Iron: Scotch pig closes steady at 51s. field rifles, and 20,000 muzzle-loaders (various).
Spencer rifles, 10,000 Springfield rifles, 5,000 En-
8d. to 51s. 9d. for warrants; Cleveland, unaltered, at Ammunition to suit, made by the Union Metallic
prices varying from 47s. for forge 4, to 51s. 6d. for
Cartridge Co."
No. 1; Welsh bars, £6 15s. to £7; Staffordshire
bars, £7 10s. to £8; Hoop iron, £9; gas tubes,
60 to 67 off list; boiler tubes, 40 to 42.
Copper is rather easier; English tough ingot, £70
to £71; Chili slab, £63 10s. to £64 10s. Tin:
in small demand, pending the approaching Dutch
sale; English ingot, £125 to £126; Straits, £124
to £125. Lead: selling at lower prices; best En-
glish soft pig, £19 15s. Spelter: quiet and reduced
in value; English, £18 10s. to £19; Silesian, special
brands, £18 to £18 10s.

Correspondence.

OZOKERIT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE "MECHANICS' MAGAZINE." SIR,-In your number of September 16, I read your article concerning "Ozokerit." It may perhaps be of use to some of your readers to know what it really is, and, therefore, I beg you to find a small corner in your valuable paper for it. "Ozokerit," or better" Oxokérit," has nothing to do with Greek or Latin, is a kind of "fossile wax or "paraffine' nearly in a pure state (CH). It is abundantly found in its natural state in the Turkish province of Moldavie, where the inhabitants make candles from it. Mixed with graphite, it is a very good lubricating material. I don't know to what end it is used in England, perhaps to lubricate some guns on the multigroove principle! I remember to have read some years ago the above definitions of Ozokerit, in the year 1861 or thereabouts. I was then in Germany and they talked there of making soap of it, as for candles I believe it gave a bad smell when burnt. -I am, Sir, yours, &c.,

ACCORDING to the newspaper statements of his equipments, the French infantryman carries a burden scarcely less in weight than that which loaded down the soldiers of ancient Rome. The following is the formidable catalogue of his freight:-A Chassepot, 731b. weight; sword, bayonet, and scabbard, 31b.; 101b. of ammunition, distributed partly in two pouches and partly in his knapsack; a pair of extra shoes, a 4lb. loaf, a canvas bag slung over his left shoulder, and containing any creature comforts the man may procure, such as tobacco and brandy. Over his knapsack there is a great coat, a blanket, his share of the canvas for the tente d'abri, and sticks for the same, and a huge camp kettle. The knapsack contains an extra pair of trousers, brushes, needles, thread, buttons, a pair of gloves, socks, three shirts, and a water flask. If the French soldiers entered the battle of Woerth in this pack-horse style, it is not surprising that their elan, of which so much is said, was chiefly shown in springing to the rear.

THE "Glatton," 2, double screw turret- ship, armour-plated, 2,709 tons, building in Chatham Dockyard, is making very satisfactory progress, more hands having been lately placed upon her, and it is expected that she will be ready to be floated out of dock next January in a very forward state. A large number of men are employed upon the turret, in which will be placed the immense guns with which the ship is to be armed. The breastwork of the turret is nearly completed, but the turret itself is only being prepared for the armourplates. The armour used for the "Glatton" will be of unprecedented thickness. The armour of the breast work of the turret is formed of 12in. plates, but the turret itself will be protected with armour no less 14in. thick, the heaviest plates ever yet manufactured for our ships of war. The breast work of the turret, the armour, the teak backing, and the inner iron skin will be nearly 3ft. thick. The plating of the broadside of the ship is completed. CHILLED WHEELS FOR ORDINARY TIP- Amidships the armour is 12in. thick, but is reduced

The Hague, September 18.

WAGGONS.

A. DE B.

SIR,-I should feel obliged if any of your readers could favour me with their practical opinion or experience as to the best form of chilled wheels for ordinary tip-waggons worked on a sand contract with a lead of about two miles. I find that the chill wears through in ten days, and the wheel is done for in about six weeks. Now, I am anxious to ascertain whether a clearly-defined chill in the section is preferable for working purposes to one where the light colour of the chill dies away into that of the ordinary metal. Information on the above subject will greatly oblige.-I am, Sir, yours, &c., Mansfield, September 25.

TO CORRESPONDENTS,

C. E.

to 10in. fore and aft. The armour-plates for this
formidable ship have been supplied by the Camell
Ironworks Company at Sheffield. The hurricane
deck is in course of construction, and the whole
work of building the ship appears to be making
rapid way.

COLONEL MAXWELL, R. A., Superintendent of the Cossipore Gun Foundry, after comparing the French and Prussian field-guns, in a letter to the "Times," :-"I fearlessly and dispasconcludes by saying sionately assert that the 9-pounder muzzle-loading gun which we have lately adopted is the most powerful field-gun of its size in Europe; that in a few weeks we shall be provided with a trustworthy concussion fuse for bursting both common shell and

shrapnell on graze when the ground is favourable;

that we have already the best time fuse in existence for bursting shells in the air, under proper circumstances; that this gun and its ammunition can in no wise go wrong, and that we may confidently send it into the field to meet any field-gun in existence of its size. But we must learn to fire deliberately, and apply reason, based on experience, in teaching our gunners their art. The Times," in a long article on the subject of field artillery as illustrated by the operations of the present war, asks:-"Are we to calibre of British field artillery capable of being rest satisfied with 12-pounders as the highest carried with an army making forced marches, and able to be transported rapidly from place to place on with either Prussia, Austria, or Russia. The the field of battle? If so, we should find ourselves opposed by artillery of higher calibre in case of war Prussians have 15-pounders, the Austrian field battery gun throws a projectile of nearly 161b. weight, and the Russians have a field piece weighing little more than 12cwt., considerably less than the English smooth-bore 9-pounder which we had in the Crimea, yet throwing a projectile of more than 25lb., with a velocity of 1,050ft. per second."

Miscellanea.

THE number of visitors to the Patent Office Museum, South Kensington, for the week ending Septemper 17, 1870, was 8,358. Total number since the opening of the Museum, free daily (May 12, 1858), 1,861,364.

THE Mont Cenis Railway Company asks to have its affairs wound up on the ground that the expenses exceed the income. The losses during the winter months exceed the profits during the summer.

THE works in connection with the A B C process of purifying and utilising the sewage have been commenced by the Leeds Corporation near the sewage outfall on the river Aire. It is expected that they will be completed in about three or four months.

THE accounts of the Mercantile Marine Fund

show that in the year 1869 light dues amounting to £396,572 were received in the United Kingdom. The year's expenditure was £297,755 for maintenance of lighthouses, establishment, and charges of collection, and £66,976 for new works and building, making together £364,731.

THE earnings of the Suez Canal have not been sufficient to pay the interest coupons due July 1. Although the payment has been deferred, the directors state that the coupons will take precedence in the future distribution of the earnings, which it is hoped will, by the growth of the traffic, soon increase rapidly.

Museum during the week ending September 17, 1870, THE number of visitors to the South Kensington was-on Monday, Tuesday, and Saturday (free), from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m., 15,538; Meyrick and other galleries, 3,300; on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday (admission 6d.), from 10 a.m. till 6 p.m., 1,962; Meyrick and other galleries, 312; total, 21,112. Average of corresponding week in former years, 12,618. Total from opening of Museum, 9,792,808.

of £1 18. 8d. yearly, or 10s. 10d. half-yearly payable in is baked in Paris for the troops. It seems to be dollars per hundred for the same class of freight. THE MECHANICS MAGAZINE is sent post-free to subscribers

advance.

Allliterary communications should be addressed to the Editor of the MECHANICS' MAGAZINE. Letters relating to the advertising and publishing departments should be addressed to the publisher, Mr. R. Smiles, MECHANICS' MAGAZINE Office, 166, Fleet-street, London.

To insure insertion in the following number, advertise

ments should reach the office not later than 5 o'clock on Thursday evening.

We must absolutely decline attending to any communications unaccompanied by the name and address of the writer, not necessarily for insertion, but as a proof of good faith.-ED. M. M. Advertisements are inserted in the MECHANICS' MAGAZINE, at the rate of 6d. per line, or 5d. per line for 13 insertions, or 4d. per line for 26 insertions. Each line consists of about 10 words. Woodcuts are charged at the same rate as type. Special arrangements made for large advertise

ments.

HENRY BAYNES.-You will find the information you require in the "Story of the Guns," by Emerson Tennants,

THE "Gazette de France" gives the following details with regard to the supply of food for the army of the Rhine: Meat.-The contract for fresh meat for the army of the Rhine has been given to the syndic of the cattle merchants at the price of 15 francs 58 centimes the kilogramme-about 50,000 francs a day: the performance of this contract to THERE is sharp competition now between the begin on August 5. Salt meat for the fleet is supplied by the Americans. It is the best and whole- Pacific mail steamers and the overland line to Cali somest, say the exporters. The principal suppliesfornia. Both parties are cutting under, and carry of bacon come from Brittany. Morlaix is the great ing freight at less than the cost of transportation storehouse for this article. Bread.-A considerable The railroad has taken freight, in several instances quantity of flour also comes from America. It is at 3 dollars per hundred pounds, and the steamship with this flour chiefly that the bread is made which company has signed through bills of lading at 2 So active is competition that freight can be sent decided that in future the bread shall be baked on the spot near each camp. It has been calculated cheaper from New York to San Francisco than from that 1,000 journeymen bakers and 250 campaigning Chicago or Omaha. ovens are enough to supply the wants of 400,000 men. three hours and used immediately. The bread for The campaigning oven, of thin iron, can be set up in the troops in Paris will be baked at the Invalides and other supplementary buildings. Five hundred thousand rations of food leave Paris each day for the eastern frontier-biscuit, rice, dry vegetables, Sugar, roasted coffee, brandy, wine, &c. Forage. Switzerland sends it to Nancy, and the forage, taken at the root, comes to 50 francs the thousand. The Hungarian hay, delivered at the Strasburg Railway station, will cost 55 francs the thousand. Experience will decide as to the quality of the forage from these two markets. It is well known that there is a scarcity in France as regards this article. Temigration charges.

THERE were 740 young offenders in the nine Irish report of the inspector for 1868 and 1869 gives but Reformatory Schools at the end of last year. The a short account of the schools, and none at all of their results, though they have been in operation for 11 years. In 1869 there were committed to the schools 215 boys and 45 girls; 222 Roman Catholics and 38 Protestants. Three of the schools are for Protestants and six are for Roman Catholics. The receipts from borough and county rates in 1869 amounted to £5,429; from parents, £363. The chief dependence of the schools is on the Treasury allowance. The cost per head in 1869 ranged from £19 9s. 9d. to £27 9s. 8d.; not including outfits or