7 o'clock on Tuesday evening last. In disappear-quarter of the heavens, the most brilliant part of It is perhaps scarcely the time to discuss the ing the rays first begin to lose their brilliancy, the it being between the constellations of Vega and question as to what amount of merit, in any sphere crown disappears, the light becomes faint and Capella. The effect, however, was considerably of life, justifies the erection of a public monument intermittent, until at length the beautiful pheno- marred by the brightness of the moon. to its late possessor, but the shade of Mr. Graham menon fades from sight. can scarcely feel offended by the placing of that gentleman's effigy near the statue of James Watt. It is probably in recognition of his contributions to chemical science, more especially, that our northern friends delight to honour their departed townsman. We are not aware that in his capacity of Master of the Mint Mr. Graham did very much to warrant his being singled out for commemoration in bronze and granite in the centre of a great city. We have here sketched the general appearance of the aurora borealis, but there have been aurora which have presented striking peculiarities. These consist in appearances as of a curtain of wavy light hanging from a mass of clouds above. Of such a nature was an aurora observed at Bossekop in Lapland in 1838, the curtain of light with its wavy undulating folds being beautifully brought into full relief. Sometimes this curtain seemed to consist of separate ribbons of light arranged side by side in groups of different lengths, the lower edges being fringed with brilliant rays. The whole formed an object of exceeding beauty, which finally faded away, as all things, even the most beautiful, must in time. WAS TRIAL OF THE "KIRKSTALL" STEAM VERY successful trial of the steam ship "Kirkstall" took place on Wednesday last over the measured mile off Shoeburyness The ship has been built by Messrs. Allibon and Noyes, of Northfleet, Kent, for Messrs. Dawson and Co., of Goole, and is to be employed for transporting barrelled beer between their breweries and the London stores. Through the kindness of Messrs. Allibon and Co. we were allowed to accompany the boat on that occasion for the purpose of witnessing the working of the engines which have been placed in her. These engines are of novel construction, and such as, we venture to say, have never been seen before in a vessel. They consist of two sets of cylinders, one set (the smaller, being above the other or larger set, and when the steam has done its work in the smaller one it is exhausted into a reservoir, from which it is taken for use in the larger cylinders. By this means the whole of the force contained in the body of steam drawn from the boilers is utilised. The small cylinders are connected piston rods of the Continuing our record in order of occurrence, we next come to a brilliant display of the aurora which took place on Monday evening last. As seen through the murky atmosphere of London, it appeared to cover the heavens with crimson. Accounts from the provinces, however, speak of its principal hue as a brilliant carmine in a band of great width, stretching from east to west, with vivid corruscations of white and yellow flashing incessantly from its northern and southern sides. The display as observed by a resident in the higher parts of the north-western suburbs of London, and described by him, was very grand. He says the sky was very luminous at sunset, and, shortly after, indications of the aurora were apparent. About 6.30 a broad streak of red light covered It is a very rare thing for the aurora to be the stars Alpha and Beta Arietis, and continued manifested in this country with the distinctness for a considerable time. At 7h. 58m. a number and brilliancy which attends it in northern lati- of brilliant streamers converged from the northern tudes, although the meteor is frequently seen very horizon toward the head of Cepheus, from whence finely developed. Aurora of great brilliancy have they spread out like a gigantic fan. The phenorecently been witnessed in Great Britain, and to menon was most beautiful about 8 p.m., when imthese we will now turn our attention. The first mense cloudlike masses of crimson or carmine, one which appears to have attracted attention was interspersed with light electric streaks, were scen about two o'clock on the morning of the visible all over the heavens, being especially 21st August last by an observer at Doveridge, who brilliant from Polaris to Capella. The lustre of was entering the Mersey on board of a steam the stars was greatly diminished by the aurora, vessel. He states it to have been a moderately but several double stars and nebulae seen through brilliant aurora, and to have been succeeded by the streamers were well defined in a 3in. achrosome very vivid lightning and distant thunder. matic, with a power of 60. The maximum light On the same date, between 11 and 12 o'clock at of the aurora was so great that at one time night, another aurora was seen by an observer at ordinary letter-press could be read without Ryde. He describes its appearance as being difficulty. It is interesting to note that these very beautiful and its apparent position as in the phenomena occur at a period of great solar disnorth-west. It continued to shine for some time turbance and will afford a good opportunity of with great brilliancy. The next observed display testing the effects on the weather of such a grand was brilliant and extraordinary in the extreme, electrical display. On Tuesday evening, there and was witnessed over a large portion of Scot-was yet another display of the aurora of a to crossheads, from which rods depend; these land on the evening of September 3 last. The character very similar to that of the previous rods pass through the larger cylinders, and are display as witnessed near Edinburgh commenced night. We witnessed it from the south-western connected to lower crossheads, from which the about 8 o'clock at a point in the north-east, and suburbs of London, where it was apparent in great reciprocating motion is converted into a rotary gradually increased until the whole northern beauty. The north-eastern and western portions one by connecting rods attached to the cranks. horizon from east to west was occupied with the of the heavens were filled with a rosy vapour The guide rods have also pistons on them within meteor. A thick haze first appeared, rising up-mixed with violet-coloured clouds, through and the large cylinders, and these are acted upon by wards towards the zenith, and through its upper amongst which pale green rays waved and darted the expanded steam from the reservoir. portion the stars were seen. Out from this haze upwards to the zenith, at times forming a splendid steam, after being used the second time, flows boreal crown. long quivering lines of light shot across the The display commenced about through a pipe, and then away into the atmoheavens from east to west in rapid succession. 6 o'clock, and lasted for about an hour. phere. They sometimes met at a point in the zenith, but These meteorological phenomena are beautiful never uniting so as to form a perfect well-defined in themselves, and, as we have already seen, are auroral crown. At right angles to these waves, in higher latitudes. There are other consideranot wholly useless, serving indeed a great purpose and shooting up sometimes from the very verge tions in connection with the aurora, relating to of the horizon, were thin spears of light irradiating and illuminating the whole of the northern hemi- its apparent and true positions, its height in the sphere. From out of the convex rim of the dense heavens, its influence upon the weather, and its haze innumerable rays of light flitted and probable cause, which however we leave for notice in another article. flickered, giving a grand appearance to the scene. The aurora at its first appearance had a bright yellowish light, but it gradually assumed a rich purplish tint, the colour becoming more intense as the moon set. The corruscations began to wax faint about eleven o'clock, gradually paling until the whole faded away like a vision. PUBLIC STATUE OF THE LATE PRO FESSOR GRAHAM, F.R.S. T has been determined by the friends and ad The During the trial the engines worked remarkably steady, and showed that the greatest care and Co., who built them as well as the ship. The had been bestowed upon them by Messrs. Allibon boilers were vertical ones, and also of novel construction. The flame and products of combustion, after acting against the inner shell or fire-box, pass between vertical tubes, and then in a downward direction to the flue or passage leading to the uptake. We shall probably give illustrations of both the engines and boilers in a future number, as we can hardly convey in words how either of them are constructed to make them in telligible to most of our readers. LEATHER PAPER IN JAPAN. NE of the most interesting and peculiar proimitate leather. The surface has every appearance of finished skin, with extraordinary firmness and elasticity, and it can be subjected to washing without any injury from the water. These peculiarities are not so much due to the superior quality of the material as to the mode of manufacture, the surfaces remaining intact, even when the paper is very thick, while with us, paper of this kind soon loses its firmness and the grain is impaired. mirers of the late Mr. Thomas Graham that a The next auroral display was also very fine; it statue shall be erected to commemorate his occurred on the night of September 24, an ob- career. The site selected for the monument, and server at Nottingham timing its commencement which has been granted by the Town Council for as at a quarter past 10 o'clock. At that time an its erection, is a corner of St. George's-square, arch of clear white light extended from the north- Glasgow, which already contains at another corner west along the northern borizon until it was lost a statue of James Watt. It must be gratifying to towards the east in the glare of the town. From the family of the deceased to find that action has this arch bright waves of light ran upwards in been taken so promptly in this matter, for continuous streams with a slight trending from although scarcely twelve months have elapsed west to east. Towards the west the display was since the death of Mr. Graham sufficient funds much brighter than due north, and had a slightly have been collected (principally in Glasgow, of pink hue. About 11 o'clock the light assumed a which place, or its immediate suburb, he was a pointed and streaked appearance, and the waves native) for realising the object desired. The were converted into spears of light, which darted statue is to be of bronze, and it will be placed on Japanese leather paper is made extensively at upwards. This aurora was also witnessed by an a pedestal of Aberdeen granite, so as to harmonise Flangawa, near Yeddo. It is made in sheets of 60 observer at Lynn, Norfolk, who fixes its position with the memorial of Watt. Mr. Brodie is the centimetres in length and 42 centimetres in width. as from the north-east to the west. He describes artist to whom the work has been entrusted, and similar to our packing paper, and is made in Southern The paper out of which it is prepared is not disits appearance as being much the same as seen at as that gentleman has already achieved a certain Japan, near Nagasaki, and thence taken to other Nottingham, stating that at the west a column of reputation by the execution of similar tasks it provinces, where it is manufactured into different light ascended at times nearly up to Lyra. This may be fairly hoped that he will be successful in forms for various uses. The leather paper is made column was at first of a darkish crimson hue, the accomplishment of the one in question. As a in the following manner:-It is dampened and laid which it afterwards exchanged for a pale rosy general rule, however, it must be admitted sculp- in pairs between two peculiarly-prepared forms, tint, even up to 12 o'clock, after which no observa- tors fail in producing statues which are in al! re-made of paper also, only more highly varnished tions appear to have been made. The white spects satisfactory. Were it necessary to adduce leather paper; they have a very strong surface lights in the north were seen at Lynn for several proofs of this assertion they might readily be fur-coating, but running only in one direction. nights after the above display, but unaccompanied nished without travelling a hundred miles from Before putting the paper in these forms the sheets by the usual brilliant manifestations. The next London. Mr. Brodie may, indeed, have the addisplay on record occurred on the evening of the vantage of profiting by the errors of others if he 14th instant, and was described by an observer at chooses to inspect some of the caricatures of public Maldon, Essex. It was noticed between the hours men which are to be found in the metropolis itof 8 and 9, and was a fine exhibition of rose-self, and which are dignified by the name of coloured rays. It extended along the north-west statues. If there are several sheets, they are rolled on a are stretched a little in the direction of their width. cylindrical piece of wood, the grain of the paper running in an opposite direction trom that of the wood; they are then unrolled from this on a cloth, to keep them in shape, and put into a form with a hole in the top large enough to admit the end of the wooden cylinder. The roll of paper is then subjected to a pressure of 200 or 300 pounds. After the roll has been reduced to three-quarters of its original length by this pressure, it is taken out of the press and turned, the folds flattened out, and again pressed to remove the deep marks. After passing the paper through rollers several times, the upper surface acquires the appearance of leather; it is then coloured, oiled with a kind of rape-seed oil, varnished, put once more in the press, which completes it, with the exception of drying. By means of parallel or cross lines on the rollers the upper surface of the paper is made to resemble leather exactly in all its varieties. The paper being pressed to one-third or even one-half its original thickness, and the passage through the rollers giving ft a fine grained appearance, makes it valuable to picture printers, as the surface has the appearance of crepe silk. There is another variety of leather paper which is smooth and transparent, resembling hog skin very much. This is manufactured by a process of hammering, and is the highest priced, costing 27 cents per sheet, while the other ranges from 8 to 14 cents, some very fine selling at 8 cents per sheet.-"Ex." in "Technologist." IMPROVEMENTS IN HULLING GRAIN. MESSRS BROWN and POLSON, the celebrated cornflour factors, of Paisley, have just patented some improvements in apparatus for hulling grain, which they carry out in the following manner. Under one arrangement the mechanism by which the hulling or husking of the grain is effected consists of a cylindrical or conical barrel or drum placed either horizontally or inclined, which is revolved at the requisite velocity and situated inside a cylindrical or conical casing, the barrel or drum and casing being of such dimensions that a space is left between them. The barrel or drum is wholly or partly covered with a sheet or sheets or strips of perforated iron or steel, whilst the cylindrical casing is also composed of similar perforated iron or steel. At one end of the casing a passage or duct is provided through which the grain to be hulled or husked is admitted, and at the opposite end of the casing another duct is provided, through which the grain after being hulled or husked is discharged. For the purpose of cooling the working parts of the hulling or husking mechanism as well as the grain itself the duct by which the grain is admitted is provided with an air chamber and fan or exhauster by which cold air is drawn through perforations in the ends as well as in the duct to the mechanism, thereby keeping it as well as the grain at a sufficiently low tempe rature. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section, fig. 2 is a transverse section, and fig. 3 is an end elevation showing one modification of apparatus for hulling or husking grain. The mechanism consists of a cylindrical barrel or drum A, constructed of segments or staves of timber B, and attached at both ends to discs C C, fixed upon the revolving shaft or spindle D. The external cylindrical surface of the barrel or drum A is covered by perforated plates or strips a of steel or iron. Upon one end of the shaft or spindle D a driving pulley E is fixed for communicating a rotary motion to the barrel or drum, which is situated within a perforated cylindrical casing F, fixed at both ends to rings G G carried by the arms and boss V and free to revolve upon the shaft or spindle D. At the centre thereof, and upon the exterior of the casing F, a ring H having spur teeth is fixed, which gears into a pinion I fixed upon a shaft J carried in bearings in the end frames K K. Upon one end of the shaft J is a pulley L for communicating a rotary motion to the shaft J by means of a strap or belt b driven by a small pulley M fixed upon the corresponding end of the shaft or spindle D, and through the medium of the spur wheel H and the pinion I a rotary motion is conveyed to the casing E at a velocity equal by preference to 1-25th or thereabouts of that of the barrel or drum A, which may be in a direction contrary to that in which the barrel A revolves or in the same direction. The exterior casing of the apparatus consists of end frames K K bolted at the lower part to side frame plates N N. whilst the top or covering, which is semicircular, is of sheet iron extending between the end frames K K, and secured to flanges c c, by means of rivets or bolts. Upon one of the end frames K, a passage O is formed in the manner shown, to which a pipe P is attached, having by preference through a portion of its length an outer shell or casing Q, the position of which, as shown in the drawings, forms an annular space R around the passage P, and to the lower part of which a small drip pipe d is attached, provided for the purpose of withdrawing any superfluous water that may collect in the space R through the condensation of the steam contained therein. In place of steam water may be admitted into the space R. The air-tight chamber S wherein the working parts of the apparatus are situated terminates at the lower side in a duct T formed as shown, and leading to a fan or exhauster. The grain which is to be husked or hulled is admitted through the passage P, and into the annular space R steam or water is admitted; the said pipe P is perforated as shown for the purpose of allowing the steam or water to moisten the grain during its passage through the passage P. In travelling downwards through the duct Ŏ the moistened grain falls into the space between the revolving casing F and drum A, which may revolve in opposite directions, as indicated by the arrows upon fig. 2, and at different velocities as before mentioned. The grain is thus exposed to a rubbing or triturating action between the perforated plates a upon the barrel or drum A and those forming the casing F, whereby the outer coating or husk is removed from the inner portion of the grain. This rubbing process is maintained throughout the entire length of the barrel or drum A as the grain travels along its surface, and when having arrived at the end opposite to that into which it was admitted the grain then drops into and is discharged through a duct U formed in one of the end frames K. During the whole of the operation now last described a current of cool air is drawn through the perforations e, both in the duct O as well as in the ends K, passing through the grain and over the working parts of the apparatus, thereby keeping the grain as well as the mechanism at a low temperature whilst the hulling or husking operation is continued. The said current of air is occasioned and drawn downward by means of an ordinary fan or exhauster conveniently placed at the outer end of the duct T. M. seum during the week ending October 29, 1870 THE number of visitors to the South Kensington from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m., 11,835; Meyrick and was-on Monday, Tuesday, and Saturday (free), other galleries, 1,893; on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday (admission 6d.), from 10 a.m. till 4 p.m., 2,039; Meyrick and other galleries, 144; total, 15,911. Average of corresponding week in former years, 10,806. Total from opening of Museum, 9,918,977. IT appears from an elaborate return that at the close of 1868 the following railway companies, connected more or less with the North and East of England, possessed the annexed number of locomoshire, 455; Great Eastern, 396; Great Northern tives:-Great Western, 867; Lancashire and York493: London and North-Western, 1,527; Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire, 270; Midland, 689; North-Eastern, 865; Caledonian, 523; North British, 390; Glasgow and South-Western, 121. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE BY MR. F. BRUSCH. FIG 2 OPERATING THE DAMPERS OF STEAM BOILERS. HE apparatus illustrated above is for working or operating dampers or regulators for governing the draught or passage of air or waste currents from furnaces, and is applicable not only to the flues of steam boiler furnaces, but also to the flues of other furnaces where the pressure due to the expansion of either elastic or liquid fluids or gases can be obtained and made available for actuating the apparatus. The invention will be understood by referring to the engravings, a patent having been obtained for it by Mr. F. Brusch, of Kingston-upon-Hull, where fig. 1 is an elevation of the working parts of the apparatus, fig. 2 being a plan of fig 1; fig. 3 is a vertical sectional view of the apparatus, taken on the line A B. In each view the diaphragm, which is there shown as a plain surface or sheet of elastic material, and the loosely fitting piston and other moving parts of the apparatus, are shown as being at rest, or without any pressure acting thereupon. The steam pipe or connection between the apparatus and the source of pressure, whether it be the steam boiler or a separate vessel for containing a body of mercury or an elastic body capable of expanding by heat, is lettered a; the passage therefrom, upon, or within the case by which the pressure is communicated to the diaphragm is lettered b; c c are the bracket pieces or jaws forming the fulcrum, within which the lever arm d is supported; d, the lever arm, having its fulcrum pin resting within the jaws of the bearings c c; e, a stirrup-like frame surrounding the case or cylinder of the apparatus; el, the upper part of the stirrup frame e resting on the short end of the lever d; f, the loosely fitting piston beneath the diaphragm; g, a screw pin or stud having a nut thereon, by which the piston ƒ is secured to the stirrup-like frame; h, the short end of the lever d; i, the diaphragm; j, the body of the apparatus or body of the vessel within which the steam, water, or other pressure for acting on the diaphragm is received; k, the ring beneath the diaphragm, and within which the loosely fitting piston f works; this ring k is secured by means of screws to the under side of the apparatus or vessel j; are the standards upon which the cylinder and apparatus is mounted; mm, bracket pieces upon which the bell crank n n is mounted; o is a short connecting rod or link between the bell crank n and the lever arm d; p, the rod or bar, connected at one end by means of a single or compound joint to the lower arm of the bell crank n, the other end having a handle, and also a series of holes formed therein for receiving the pin of the crank arm fitted upon the spindle of damper valve; q, the damper valve, fitted within a vertical frame and upon a vertical spindle pivoted at the bottom; r, a balance weight, capable of being adjusted upon the longer end of THE the lever arm d, in accordance with the variation in the pressure at which the apparatus has to be worked or made to operate. IMPROVED MEANS OF PROPELLING VESSELS. AMONG the patents recently granted in this country is one for an invention for propelling vessels by means of revolving blades fixed upon arms which are keyed to bosses, one of which runs loosely upon the longitudinal shaft projecting FIG.I. through the sternpost in the manner shown in the engravings. It will be seen that the blades revolve in contrary directions through the intermediate pinion, and their action upon the water is such that they propel the vessel at a greater FIG.2. speed than when both sets revolve in the same direction. Mr. Tyrer, of Birkdale, Lancashire, the inventor, however, proposes that in some cases the two sets shall revolve the same way. THE number of visitors to the Patent Office Museum, South Kensington, for the week ending October 29, 1870, was 6,007. Total number since the opening of the Museum, free daily (May 12, 1858), 1,906,731. TRIAL TRIP OF THE "ABYSSINIA.” HE "Times" of November 2 gives the following: The Abyssinia, breast work monitor, 1,849 tons, 200-horse power of engines, carrying two double-gun turrets, and driven by twin screws, built for the defence of Bombay, to order of the Secretary of State for India, by Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon, of Millwall, under Admiralty supervision, was put through her final trial of machinery and speed yesterday over the measured mile off the Maplin Sands, previous to her sailing for Bombay, the trial being conducted by Government officers, and in accordance with the rules observed on the trials of all of her Majesty's ships. The "Abyssinia" left Gravesend on Monday, and after steaming as far as the Maplin Sands, went into Sheerness harbour and anchored there for the night. Yesterday morning she left the harbour again for the trial ground. The Admiralty officials on board comprised:-Mr. Barnes, member of the Admiralty Council of Construction; Mr. James Steil, Admiralty Inspector of Machinery; StaffCaptain Kiddle, of the Sheerness Steam Reserve; Mr. W. Steil, Assistant-Master Shipwright and Engineer, Sheerness Dockyard; Mr. T. T. Murray, Inspector of Machinery, Sheerness Dockyard; and Mr. Laslett, Admiralty Surveyor. The ship's draught of water was 13ft. 7in. forward and 14ft. 8in. aft, giving a mean draught of 14ft. 1 in. At her load line the ship will float at 15ft. forward and aft., with the main deck having a freeboard of 3ft. A strong wind prevailed off the Sands during the time the ship was being tried, and a lumpy sea was running, but the results were considered very satisfactory by all the officials on board, the ship under full boiler power, without being pressed in any way, or the power of her engines brought out to their full extent, averaging as a mean of six runs made over the measured mile, 9.600 knots per hour. Under half boiler power she realised a mean speed of 7.827 knots. The mean revolutions of the engines at full boiler power were 117.5 per minute. In trying the ship over circles after the speed trials had been con olded, and the circle was made to port in 2min. 12sec., and the full circle in 4min. 52sec. To starboard the half circle was made in 2min. 10sec., and the full circle in 4min. 42sec. The angle the rudder was put over in each instance was 30deg. In testing the action of the engines, in reversing their motion to signal from the hurricane deck, the results obtained were equally satisfactory with others, connected with their power and speed, each pair to port and starboard stopping dead in 15sec., starting astern to full speed from rest in 5sec. and 6sec. respectively, and changing from full speed astern to full speed ahead in 4sec. and in 6sec. respectively. The engines were structed by the builders of the ship, and consist of two pairs of inclined cylinders, direct-acting, the diameter of the cylinders being 34in., and the spoke of the pistons 21in. They drive two threebladed screws, each of 9ft. 6in. diameter. The distance between the centres of the screw shafting is 13ft. 6in. con The "Abyssinia" is one of three vessels of the low freeboard Monitor type that have been built for the defence of our colonial harbours, the 66 Magdala" being the second vessel, also for the defence of Bombay, and the "Cerberus," which sailed from the Nore on Saturday for Plymouth and Melbourne, being the third. The two latter exceed the "Abyssinia" in tonnage and engine power, but all three are exactly alike in design and arrangement of their decks and turrets as low freeboard Monitors, carrying their turrets inside an armour-plated breast work, or smaller deck built upon the main deck, and covered-in low-swimming hull of the ship. In one very important respect, however, there is at present a very great difference between the "Abyssinia and her consorts. The former floats purely and simply as a Monitor without rig of any kind aloft, and with only two light pole stars for signal staffs. The "Cerberus" and the "Magdala" are both bark-rigged for their voyage out, and with the certainty that sail power can under no circumstances be of any service to them, and very probably will be found to seriously imperil their safety. The "Cerberus " may or may not carry her spars and sails with her from Plymouth to Melbourne at all risks, but it is believed to be the wish of the Controller of the Navy to take the "Magdala's" masts out of her again and send her out to Bombay under steam alone, as the "Abyssinia " will go out via the Suez Canal. In appearance nothing can well be imagined more unsightly than the three Monitors, more especially the two hampered with the absurdity of masts and sails; but ORGANISATION OF THE PRUSSIAN I. HISTORICAL REVIEW. and 1813 having been too short, the Landwehr of 1813 was not composed like the Landwehr of today, of trained soldiers; and the inferiority of raw levies, compared with trained soldiers, would have been still more perceptible than it was had not the fearful losses of Napoleon in Russia forced him, too, to make his appearance in 1813 partially with young troops. Patriotism in this case made up again for want of training, though at great expense of life and treasure. in their fighting capacities they have no equals at present afloat, in our own or in the navy of any other power, of the same tonnage. At first sight it may appear somewhat startling to say that the THE great success of the German armies is due low freeboard Monitor type of war vessel has been not only to strategy and energy but probably introduced into the British Navy by the present just as much to the perfect system of the national Admiralty as a special weapon for coast defence, defences of Prussia, extended since 1866 to the yet such is the case, for, in addition to the "Abys-North German Confederation, and to a certain desinia," "Cerberus," and "Magdala" as colonial gree to the South German States. harbour defence ships, the Admiralty are having four Monitors of the same type, but of larger tonAfter Napoleon's downfall the system was connage and horse-power, built by contract for home The principle that every citizen is bound to tinued and improved. The peaceful times then coast defence-i. e., " Hecate," building by Messrs. assist in the defence of his country is as old as it following permitted, hor ever, for the good of the J. and W. Dudgeon; "Cyclops," building by the is natural. It was recognised in the Roman re- finances, to reduce not only the actual time of serThames Ironworks Company; the "Gorgon," public, and still more among the nations which vice with the colours, but also the number of men building by Palmer and Co.; and the "Hydra," overran the Roman empire. The barbarous custom called out, and about one-fifth to one-fourth of the building by Elder and Co. These four ships will of enslaving conquered nations in the Middle Ages number were usually excused altogether. The each carry four 25-ton guns, mounting a pair in restricted the honour and the duty of defending short campains of 1848 and '49 against Denmark, each of their turrets. The "Abyssinia "and the the country to the conquerors. The property of the mobilizations of 1850 and '59, without leading two colonial consorts mount each four 18-ton the soil was given to the victorious warriors, under to actual war, showed several weak points of the guns, a pair in each of their two turrets. In this condition that they were always to be ready to system as it then was; and in 1860 the present vital respect the "Abyssinia," although 300 tons follow the banner of the chief in case of war-King, then regent still, adopted a plan of reorsmaller than the "Cerberus" and "Magdala," the origin of feudalism. Every freeman was ganization presented to him by General von Roon, carries the same weight of armament, and even brought up a warrior, the tilling of the soil being which coincided with his own opinion about the stows a larger quantity of ammunition than the left to the conquered for the benefit of their matter, and the general entered upon the office of others. The length of the Abyssinia " between masters. The first change was brought about by Secretary of War to bring his plans into executhe perpendiculars is 225ft., with an extreme the invention of gunpowder. Soldiering then tion. The two main points of improvement were: breadth of 42ft. at the top of the freeboard, or ceased to a certain degree to be a common accom- 1st, that the principle be carried out to its fullest covering in of the hull proper; the depth from this plishment; it became a profession which had to be extent, and that nobody should be excused; 2nd, covering to the keelson being 12ft. 2in. This hull acquired with some pains, and soldiers began to be that every organization, even of the administrative has a double bottom through its greater extent, hired for pay. Then the old principle-that every branches, such as subsistence, ambulance, ammudivided into 44 water-tight compartments, which freeman had to be a soldier-fell into abeyance. nition trains, &c., should be represented in peace are again divided by nine water-tight bulkheads. Armies were hired for the war. They ceased to time, and their preparatory training be just as Where the double bottom is not extended into the be national and became a scourge to friend and carefully attended to as that of the fighting men. extreme ends at the bows and the stern, water-foe alike. This system, which was developed to Both points involved an increase of the military tight iron decks are introduced. The covering-in its most fearful extent in the times of the Thirty expenses; and this gave occasion to difficulties deck is composed of lin. iron plating riveted up Years' War, led next to the establishment of stand-between the King and his Parliament since 1860, in the usual manner on the rolled iron beams of ing armies. The desire to suppress the feudal which were adjusted by the great success of 1866, the ship's frame, and over that 4in. teak planking. barons, always inclined to oppose the increase of when the first effectual step toward the fulfilment The armour plating round the hull consists of an the power of their liege lords, induced the latter to of the historical mission of Prussia-to reunite upper and a lower strake, the upper being 7in. in keep soldiers in permanent pay and continual and organize Germany-was taken; and the great thickness and the lower strake 6in. Upon this readiness. The increasing demand for such armies value of the present organization of the national deck is built the upper or breast work deck, taught the princes to revive the old principle that defences was acknowledged. which encloses within its elliptical walls of armour every citizen should assist in the defence of the plating the two turrets, conning tower, funnel and country, and the fulfilment of this duty was exengine room, hatchways, steering wheel, &c. The acted; conscription was introduced. The first height of this breastwork deck from the main or Prussian king who gave a kind of organisation to covering-in deck is 4ft. 2in. The tops of the this system was Frederick William I. The soturrets project above the breast work deck 6ft., called "canton system " assigned a certain recruitand the guns are thus carried with the axis of ing district to each regiment. The enlistment of their bore at about 11ft. above the water line foreigners became the exception. Frederick the with the ship at her load line. The breast work Great, during his fearful struggle against almost is 107ft. long, and 36ft. 4in. wide amidships. It is all Europe, could not do yet without foreign enplated with armour 9in. in thickness round the listments, because his small nation was unable to turrets and amidships, round the funnel and its furnish for years all its able-bodied men, if the casings with plating of 7in. The turrets have a ruin of agricultural pursuits was not to stop utterly clear interior diameter of 21ft. 3in., and each its natural resources. mount two 18-ton muzzle-loading rifled guns. The armour plating on the turrets is 10in. in thickness on the front faces and round the gunports, and 9in. on the rear faces. The pilot or conning tower rises to a height of 12ft. 6in. above the breastwork deck, and is, therefore, nearly 20ft. above the water. It is plated with 9in. iron, and weighs upwards of 70 tons. The two hatchways which give access, and air and light to a limited extent, to the ship below from the main deck outside and below the breastwork deck are iron cylinders, projecting upwards some 3ft., and formed of 6in. armour plates. Their production must have been a matter of serious cost. The decks of the ship are crowded with "notions," as the Americans II. RECRUITING. The name of every male citizen of Prussia is since 1809 entered upon the army lists actually at his birth. The civil authority, upon receiving the usual notice of the birth of a child, reports the names of the males to the commander of the "Landwehr Battalion." He represents the territorial military authority; and his district is coextensive with one or sometimes two "circles," as they call what we call "counties." Every Prussian is bound by law, as long as he is not yet excused from all military duty, or as long as he has sons under the age of twenty, to report any change of residence, that is to say, any change of his home for good. Emigrants have been very numerous from Germany, simply because the soil is no longer adequate to the wants of the steadily increasing population; but this movement excepted, the German is steady and not given to moving aboutthe less so, as to give up what he has got before he has got something better is very dangerous in a country where labour is in excess of the demand, and no uncultivated soil is to be found.. For this reason a regulation can be easily enforced which it would be impossible to carry out in the United States. The French revolutionists, when attacked by the standing armies of their neighbours, revived the old principle of a national defence to its fullest extent. Enthusiasm made up for want of brains, especially as the opposing armies were commanded by superannuated martinets, bewildered by the new spectacle. Tactics were adapted to the raw but abundant material, and finally Napoleon organised those French armies which in their victorious campaigns conquered nearly all Europe. Prussia, where the reminiscence of the glory of Frederick the Great had imbued the army and its leaders with a vanity sufficient in itself to preclude success, was in 1806 ignominiously overthrown by Napoleon. No country in Europe suffered so Each year, in April, all young men who reach would say, of all kinds, for wherever a foot's space His exactions, in spite of all justice and all pear at the seat of the Landwehr battalion before fearfully from the relentless conqueror as Prussia. their twentieth year within the current year aptreaties, never ceased; and though the heroic a recruiting board (Kreis-Ersatz-Commission) struggles in 1813 and 1814 restored Prussia composed of the commander, the civil adminisNapoleon's oppression is still bitterly remem-trative officer of the circle (Landrath), and a bered. surgeon. Here a first examination takes place. One of the most disgraceful conditions of the Those obviously unfit for any service, those who treaty of Tilsit in 1807 stipulated that Prussia are exempted by law (for instance, the only son was not to keep more than 42,000 men under arms. of a poor widow), are set aside, the lists verified, and has been found vacant in the decks or armour Her anchors also are of the old and But Prussia's patriots never despaired, and it was absentees called in. This is the business of one day, during this most unfortunate period of Prussia's national life that the foundation of the present system of national defence was laid. Not only the The ship was weighted with ballast, and inclined principle of everybody's liability to military duty was recognized, but it was made obligatory on in the Millwall Docks on Saturday last, under the every Prussian to serve a certain time in the army, superintendence of Mr. Barnes, of the Council of for the purpose of receiving a soldier's training. Construction to the Admiralty, to ascertain her General von Scharnhorst, Secretary of War, deangles of stability. The result was very satisfac-vised the means to increase the number of trained tory, as they give the distance between the meta-soldiers ready for an always expected emergency, centre and the centre of gravity at about in spite of the above peace stipulation. Each year 3.8ft. The "Abyssinia" steamed up the Thames on the conclusion of her day's trials and anchored off Greenhithe, where to-day her anchors, cables, and steam capstans will be tested, and where she will to-morrow be swang to ascertain the deviation of her compass. a part of the 42,000 were dismissed on furlough, and the men are requested to appear again some looking men, are taken for the corps of the guards; the tallest and strongest men are next designated built go to the hussars; tradesmen and mechanics are properly distributed; and the whole thing, descriptive lists included, is settled and reported. Formerly, when not yet every man was actually taken, lots were drawn immediately after the medical examination; and I cannot help remarking upon a great mistake in the draft law adopted during our great war, when we drafted before the examination had taken place, instead of examining first and drafting afterwards. Prussia is divided into military districts (Landwehr battalion districts) in such a manner that each district contains so many inhabitants that on an average about 200 each year reach the age of twenty. Of these 200 about 150 go to the infantry, 50 to all other arms of the service, cavalry, artillery, engineers, and administrative branches. The corresponding battalion of the line is 400 strong in peace time, one-third each year being dismissed to the reserve and replaced by recruits. The men remain in reserve six years up to their 29th year, and belong to the Landwehr proper during six more years. This gives a total number of 1,200 available for the line or field battalion, and 800 for the Landwehr battalion. The infantry recruits, after their three years' service, and those who have served somewhere else, all return home and remain under the orders of the Landwehr battalion commander. We propose to show by and by how all these soldiers are disposed of in case of a mobilization. Any of them changing their home report the fact, and their military record is transferred to such district as they choose to go to."New York Army and Navy Journal." NE PARIS AND ITS DEFENCES. the minds of Englishmen is, "what is to be done with Paris?" that city of which we are so proud, and in which we like to linger when we once set our foot in it. The subject of her defences has occupied an unusual degree of attention and interest for some little time past, that we are induced to give a view of the city with the fortifications around it. Paris is situated, to use a military term, a cheval on the Seine, near this junction of this river with the Marne, the latter river covering the city on the east, while a bend of the former protects the western side. The fortifications consist, first, of a chain of detached forts or fortresses commanding the rivers, and, secondly, by an enciente continue running right round the city. The bastion system of Vauban is adopted throughout. The exterior line of defence commences at St. Denis on the north, and extends to the Marne at Nogent, a distance of about eight miles. It consists of nine fortresses, and opposes the direct advance of troops from Germany. On the south Paris is covered by a line of six forts, reaching from the Marne to the Seine, a distance of about seven miles. These complete the defence of the south; four are pentagonal, and two quadrilateral. They are built of substantial materials, and contain bomb-proof barracks, and have casemated curtains. The third exterior line of defence is eight miles long. It does not consist of a chain of forts, but of the great citadel, Mont Valérien, which serves as a tete du pont to the bend of the Seine, which covers Paris to the east. Mont Valérien is supported on one side by Fort d'Issy, and on the other by St. Denis. It is the most important work of the whole. The front towards the river is 460 yards each. There is a bomb-proof accommodation for stores and 4,500 men. The ring of detached forts, all of which will be easily found in our map, extends over 22 miles. Within this is seen the enciente continue, or continuous line of fortifications. This consists of no fewer than ninety-four bastions. The exterior sides average 328 yards per bastion, forming an enciente of 30,840 yards, or nearly seventeen miles, probably the largest work of the kind ever executed. The cost was enormous-to judge from Marshal Marmont's opinion, was well spent. Marmont considered the fortifications of Paris "an event the most useful and important in the defence of France." The escarp of the enciente is 33ft. high, the ditch being 82ft. wide. The distance from the boulevard to the enciente continue averages about 1,093 yards, and that from the enciente to the forts is about the same. So long as the forts are unconquered it will be impossible to bombard Paris from a less distance than about 7,000 yards, and even then the siege train will be under fire at a range rather too close to be pleasant. In addition to these defences it is stated that earthworks are being raised from fort to fort, but we learn from private letters that these are of a very insignificant description, affording good cover, it is true, for riflemen, but not safe against even 6-pounder guns. It is stated that more than 1,000 guns can be placed in position, but this estimate, no doubt, includes a very large number of weapons which, however effective at close quarters, will be practically useless at long ranges. |