IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM BOILERS. BY MESSRS. E. GREEN AND SON, OF WAKEFIELD. FIG. 1. pston by means of two side ro ls, which also act as piston rods working through stuffing-boxes in the open or uncovered portion of the upper cover of the larger cylinder; they also work in guides fixed to the outside of the mall cylinder. The steam exhausted from each end of the smaller cylinder is led to the corresponding side of the piston of the larger cylinder, where at its reduced pressure it exerts its force upon the piston during its stroke. Messrs. Allibon and Noyes employ the double eccentric and an inverted link for operating the slide valve of each of the high-pressure cylinders. IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM BOILER. M makers, of the Works, ESSRS. E. GREEN aud SON, the eminent field, have just patented some further improvements in steam boilers, which mainly consist in the arrangement of the barrels and tubes, by which a larger heating surface than usual is gained, and by which greater facilities are given for cleaning the passages and for repairs. The invention will be understood on examination of the above engravings and the following description. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section of a boiler with four barrels or tubes placed horizontally and close together upon the setting or brickwork, so that no space is left between them. By this means the flame and products of combustion are caused to play against their under sides, to impart a large amount of heat to them before the products return over them on their passage to the flue or to the chimney. In fig. 2, which is a transverse section, it will be observed that nearly the whole of the exterior surfaces of the barrels are available for heating purposes, as they touch one another only at one portion of their circumference. Each barrel rests near its rear end upon an upright or support. These offer a slight check to the passage of the flame and products, and tend to increase their efficiency. The upper portions of the barrels are perforated or have holes in them, over which tapered tubes are secured, the smallest ends of tho tubes being downwards to admit of a comparatively large space being formed between each row to enable a man to pass for cleaning the soot or other deposit from them. These tubes are of larger diameter at their upper parts, and are connected one to the other by short connections, so that the steam generated in one tube can mingle with the steam in the next one, and thus establish a large steam area proportionate to the size of boiler. Each of cured to a flange fitted in the inner edge thereof, so that the edges of the covers are kept flush, or nearly so, with the top edges of the tubes. Thus the tubes, as it were, rest against each other and prevent the products rising to the roof before they have given off their heating properties. A plate leads from the back partition to within a short distance of the front to form a return flue along and between the tubes. By this means the whole, or nearly the whole, of the heating properties of the fuel are absorbed by the tubes before they reach the covers, but the portions that do escape are taken up by the parts of the tubes above the plate, so that little else than a sulphurous gas passes into the chimney flue. The central tube of each row it is preferred should have the branch steam pipe connected to it, and these should lead into one main steam pipe, by which the steam can be led to the engine. The fore ends of the barrels rest upon brickwork directly over the furnace door or doors, and project slightly therefrom to admit of the end covers being removed at any time for repairs or for cleaning out the sediment as required. Just above the barrel covers soot doors are arranged, and when these are open the soot can be scraped to the front or pushed to the rear, or the tubes can be swept without interfering with the fire or other part of the "setting." This will be under stood by referring to fig. 3, which is a front view of the boiler and brickwork. The feed water pipe is shown at the front of each barrel; in this position it is protected from the direct action of the flame, and yet receives an amount of heat from the furnace to partly heat the water before it enters the barrels, but it may be placed in any other position as found convenient. In order to make these boilers of light weight and of suffithem they are constructed of steel plates and made of such a size that a man can crawl into or between any part of them, as before explained. Fig. 4 is a sectional plan of four rows of tubes on four barrels set in the same brickwork, but a fewer or a larger number of each of them can be employed to suit the particular purpose for which the boiler is to be employed. THE number of visitors to the South Kensington Mseum during the week ending November 19, 1870, was on Monday, Tuesday, and Saturday (free), from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m., 11,694; Meyrick and Friday (admission 6d.), from 10 a.m. till 4 p.m., other galleries, 1,483; on Wednesday, Thursday, and 2,301; Meyrick and other galleries, 92; total, 15,570. Average of corresponding week in former years, 9,466. Total from opening of Museum, 9,967,768. THE RUSSIAN RAILWAY SYSTEM. HAV No. 5. higher than the bank price of 5 roubles 98 numbers were employed on the Moscow-Smolensk copecks. We may here observe parenthetically and other railways. Every second or third year, that in 1868 the Imperial Bank fixed certain too, either the northern or western provinces are rates for the purchase of coin and bullion, 5 subject to famine, the deficiency being made up roubles 98 copecks for the half-imperial, 1 rouble from the superabundance of other provinces, and 16 copecks for the silver rouble, and so on. this creates a traffic in articles of consumption of With regard to that portion of the capital re- a magnitude difficult to realise. Starving Olonetz presented by the obligations it is considered by or Viatka sends down the produce of its boundless the government as being in pounds sterling, and forests in exchange for the grain of Tambof or they engage to advance to the company 75 per Riazan. The flax of Pskof is bartered for the cent. of its nominal value, at the same time re- tallow of Voronej or the beetroot sugar of Kief. serving to themselves the eventual issue of the Another singular effect of climate is to make obligations. This arrangement practically makes winter a most potent auxiliary in the rapid transthe government undertake the banking business mission of goods. During the time when roads themselves, and it likewise enables them ab- and rivers are alike obliterated by snow, sledges solutely to control in future the issuing of rail- come from the most distant points to the railways, way bonds, aud to regulate their emission ac- thus feeding the stream of commerce more abuncording to the opportunities and exigencies of the dantly than could the most complete system of hour. It appears that all such eventual emis-country roads. Taking into consideration all the sions are simply termed State railway bonds, points we have advanced in the present and prewithout any specification of the line on the so-vious_articles, there can be no reasonable doubt that Russian railways will soon rank amongst the best paying of all European lines. AVING in our previous articles upon the subject of Russian Railways, given our readers to understand that there is much work to be done in this respect in Russia, it may seem somewhat anomalous if we do not indicate the primary course to be pursued in obtaining it. It is like the old recipe for dressing a hare, which still requires that the hare be caught first; but how to catch him is the question. We, therefore, propose to devote the present article-which is the concluding one upon this subject-to pointing out how the hare is to be caught, or, in other words, to indicating the course to be pursued in obtaining that much-coveted document, a concession for a railway in Russia. Up to within about two years since, no uniform or permanent rules had been laid down in Russia on the subject of the grant of railway concessions. The decision, however, which was arrived at by the government in Octo-curity of which the issue takes place. ber, 1868, reduced the question to a very simple form. By this decision, the principles regulating railway concessions have assumed a definite shape, which they will probably preserve for some time. The rules and conditions preceding and following the grant of any railway line, or the concession normale as it is termed, have been adjudicated, and according to them the first step is to obtain the Imperial permission for making the survey of the proposed line. As this is not a very difficult matter, it may happen that there will be several parties making the survey at one and the same time. The various proposals are then sent in under seal, and are examined by the Minister of Finance, who then refers them to the committee of ministers. The only tenders admitted are those which fulfil the required conditions as to solvency of the contractor for the works, and the financial status of the guarantor or banker of the party tendering, and who is to provide the requisite caution money. Another regulation imposed by the government is one by which it reserves to itself special powers with regard to the guaranteed capital of the railway companies. The sums raised upon the guarantee have to be lodged immediately after subscription with certain bankers-either in Russia or in a foreign country-enjoying the confidence of the government. The funds required by the companies in the course of the construction of their lines are furnished to them as wanted on the production of vouchers from government inspectors stating that works to a corresponding amount have been effectively carried out. This regulation, which has been in force for some time past, may seem at the first glance to be rather arbitrary in its nature. But a little consideration will serve to show that it is a most wholesome restriction. No doubt it was at first absolutely necessary to prevent the reckless squandering of the capital raised, which would The next step is the adjudication, which takes otherwise most certainly have taken place in a place from among the tenders admitted to com- country like Russia. It is equally certain that pete, and it is natural to expect that the lowest to the operation of such restrictive measures is tenders would be accepted, provided the offer was largely due the wonderfully rapid progress lately compatible with the requirements of proper con- made in the construction of Russian railways. struction and other imposed conditions. It is, This, and other regulations of a like nature, however, only honest to state that this rule has although rather unpalateable to some companies, been departed from in one or two instances, and have done much towards checking the mad fever may be again. In the case of the Kineshma- of railway speculation which seized upon the Ivanovo Railway, the concession of the line was Russian nation, and to which we have previously granted not to the lowest bidders, who were re-made reference. By concentrating in their own sponsible contractors, but to the representatives hands the power of issuing bonds, and thus narof the Shuia-Ivanovo Railway Company. So with rowing the field of speculation on the State the Voronej-Grushevka Railway, where the ex- guarantee, the government doubtless thought to perienced contractors, Messrs. Gladin Brothers, restore abroad that confidence in Russian railcame forward with the lowest offer of 28,350,000 way operations which was shaken by the indisroubles for the entire line. They did not, how-criminate flooding of the markets with masses of ever, secure the concession, which was adjudicated Russian railway stock, which took place at one to M. Poliakof for 31,479,000 roubles, he being the representative of the Grushevka-Rostof Railway Company. We ought to explain that in both these cases the reasons given for departing from the rules laid down in the concession normale were that a public benefit and economy would arise from the fusion of administrations. This may be so, but at the same time, it is decidedly unfair to other parties tendering upon the faith of certain rules In concluding this series of articles on the Rusand conditions which are ultimately ignored sian railway system we would again refer to the altogether. It would seem at least fair that com- highly favourable features presented by both peting applicants should be informed of the risks country and people in Russia. There is the they run if an existing railway company be enormous extent of territory, coupled with the represented amongst them. But it would be much fact of the country being self-sustained, and the fairer not to allow such companies to obtain conces- railways therefore are rendered independent of sions, unless their tenders were strictly in accordance the foreign trade of the empire for their success. with the rules laid down, as otherwise the railway To the varieties of climate and productions of the companies will in time obtain a monopoly of the soil must be added the special conditions inherent lines. The granting of the two concessions to which to the race and country-conditions which have we have referred gave rise to much severe comment in Russia, and we have reason to believe that the evil has not been allowed to extend-at least, not to the prejudice of bona fide and responsible parties. time. A credit of such recent growth as is that an important bearing upon the railway question. The modern Russian possesses all the wandering propensities of his Scythian forefather, and both instinct and necessity keep alive in him as much of the ways and feelings of the nomad as can be We will in the next place direct attention to manifested within the pale of modern civilisation. the financial features of the concession when The thraldom from which he has recently been granted. The capital of the line is made up of released was originally, to some extent, imposed obligations or bonds to the extent of two-thirds or for the purpose of binding him to the soil, and three-fourths, the remainder only being allotted to now that he is free, the inherited wandering proshares. These shares only are left at the disposal pensities are again developed. During the months of the company; they are not guaranteed, but they when his plot of land lies buried beneath the must not be issued without government authori- snow, the Russian peasant will set off in his sation. The concessionaires or their bankers are sledge and travel hundreds of miles in search of bound to deposit 20 per cent. of this capital of employment-no matter of what kind. Railway shares with the government within a month from operations have brought out this feature of Rusthe time of signing the concession. If the shares sian character in strong relief. Mr. Rumbold tells are issued in roubles with a guarantee of exchange, us that large gangs of labourers from. the most they are not allowed to fix a lower rate than one distant and various provinces came to work at the which would bring the price of the half-imperial construction of the Nijni line, and still greater INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. HE following paper, "On the Water Supply read at the rooms of the above institution, Great George-street, Westminster, on the 15th inst., C. B. Vignoles, Esq., F.R.S., in the chair. In the year 1835 parliamentary power was obtained to bring in water, for the supply of Paisley, from the districts of Gleniffer and Harelaw, lying to the south of the town, having respectively drainage areas of 624 acres and of 166 acres. The works were executed under the direction of the late Mr. R. Thom, M. Inst. C.E., who made careful experiments, extending over a period of three years, to ascertain the amount of water flowing from the Gleniffer district, by means of which the quantity actually available was found to be 70,354,769 cubic feet per annum, which was equivalent to 31-06in. out of a depth of 46-13in. of rain, over an area of 27,189,063 superficial feet. Of this quantity Mr. Thom awarded one-fourth as compensation to bleach fields. Tof the Town of Paisley, Renfrewshire," was The works consisted of a reservoir at Harelaw, capable of holding 14,248,000 cubic feet of water, with a conduit leading from thence to Stanely, where there were two reservoirs, one to act as a subsiding pond, the other for holding clear water, with regulating sluices for turning the water into either. The open conduit between Harelaw and Stanely was the principal feeder for the Stanely reservoirs; in its course it intercepted the burns flowing from Gleniffer braes, which was almost all pasture ground. The store reservoir was capable of holding 28,340,000 cubic feet, and the clear water basin 7,194,000 cubic feet. These works provided a supply of 22 gallons per head for a population of 50,000. In 1855 the works were transferred from the company to the town council, and the claims were settled by arbitration at 6 per cent. on capital. In 1853 new powers were obtained to bring in the water of the Rowbank burn, with a drainage area of 1,220 acres. These powers were, however, allowed to lapse, and another nearly similar Act was obtained in 1866, under which the present works had been constructed. Gauges were erected on four streams, and two rain gauges were placed at different levels to test the amount of water flowing off the drainage area in proportion to the rainfall. The quantity of rain falling on 700 acres, the depth being 64.39in., was equal to 163,614,990 cubic feet, and on 350 acres, the depth of rain being 50-79in., 64,528,695 cubic feet. The average depth of rain over the whole area was 59.86in., or 228,143,685 cubic feet, and subtracting the amount measured by the weirs, 179,662,325 cubic feet, there remained for loss by evaporation, &c., 48,481,360 cubic feet, which was equal to 12-72in. of the rainfall, leaving 51-67in. available for the high ground, and 38-70in. for the low ground. There now remained 170 acres with a rainfall of 3807in. to be added, which yielded 23,492,997 cubic feet of water per annum, raising the total to 203,155,322 cubic feet per annum. The pipes were constructed to carry 184 cubic feet per minute, and the compensation water was fixed by the Act of 1866 at 92 cubic feet per minute. Storage was provided for 180 days, or for about 77,000,000 cubic feet. A conduit 64 miles long conducted the water to the Stanely filters, whence it was conveyed to Paisley by a 16in. pipe. A branch pipe left the main 3 miles west of Paisley to supply the towns of Johnstone and Elderslie, and a set of filters and a tank were constructed at Craigenfeoch for filtering the water supplied to those places. Another set of filters and a tank were placed on the high ground to the south of the original reservoirs of Stanely, with a branch pipe leading down to them, to make up any deficiency that might occur in the old works. STRODE'S GAS REGULATOR. water over the filters during filtration. The filters INLET The store reservoir erected to impound 77,000,000 cubic feet of water required three embankments, of which the largest was 60ft. deep and 500ft. in length along the top, with slopes of 3 to 1 on the inside, and of 24 to 1 on the outside. The puddle wall was 8ft. broad at the top, and increased with a batter of 1 in 8 on each side down to the surface of the ground, from which point it diminished to one-half that width, the greatest depth being 62ft. The other two embankments were respectively 230ft. long and 14ft. deep, and 815ft. long and 18ft. deep. The first operation consisted in the formation of a bye-wash channel, to carry the water of the Reivoch burn during the construction of the large bank, as it was from this burn that floods were apprehended, and it now served for conveying impure water on their Occurrence. When this was finished, the outlet years since invented an apparatus of this kind tunnel was proceeded with, the purpose of which which is known as a governor. As regards its was in the first place to discharge the water which action it left very little to be desired; nevertheless would have accumulated during the construction it has been comparatively little used owing to its of the bank, and to receive the two outlet pipes, cost, inconvenient size, the unpleasant smell one of which carried the compensation water and arising from the water with which it was charged, the other the water for the town. The tunnel was and a liability to get out of order if not frequently 426ft. long, and the interior dimensions were 5ft. attended to. On the other hand, the mercurial 6in. by 5ft. 6in. It had vertical side walls and a regulator, in which mercury is supplied as a flexsemicircular roof. The whole length of the arch ible medium, requires neither attention nor rewas 15in. thick, of moulded bricks set in cement, pair, and will work for years without giving the with an arch of rubble stone set in mortar over it. The engineer for the works was Mr. James least trouble. In the accompanying engraving At the lower end of the tunnel there was a sluice-Leslie, M. Inst. C.E. The contractors for the wo illustrate a modification of this instrument as house, 10ft. square, with an arched roof, while at reservoir at Nethertrees were Messrs. Alexander constructed by Messrs. Strode and Co., of 19, Osthe inner end of the tunnel there was a horseshoe- Wilson and Son, and the cost of it, inclusive of naburgh-street, Regent's Park. It is of moderate shaped recess of masonry, in which was placed an sluices and ironwork, was £17,433. The same size, carries quicksilver instead of water, and emiron upstand or sluice shaft. This recess was 10ft. contractors executed the filters, for Johnstone and bodies several improvements in the details. The 9in. long by 5ft. 9in. broad, with walls 2ft. 6in. Elderslie, and also the branch pipe from the main entrance, course, and outlet of the gas are inthick. The upper end of the tunnel, for a length aqueduct, at a cost of £7,554. Mr. John Pollock dicated by the arrows in our engraving, which of 17ft., was filled with solid masonry round the was the contractor for the pipe track from Row-represents a vertical section of the apparatus. It outlet pipes, and provision was made in the con- bank to Stanely, which cost £15,414, and for the is furnished with a set of weights for adjusting tract for filling the tunnel with clay round the Stanely filters, which were not yet completed. the pressure to anything desired from lin. to 3-10in. outside of the pipes, but this had not been neces- Messrs. D. Y. Stewart and Co. cast all the iron column of water. The best average results sary. The waste weir was excavated in the solid pipes, and also laid that portion between Stanely are found to be produced from 5-10in. This rock at the south end of the large bank, and was and Paisley. The total cost of the scheme, in- regulator will be seen to be simple in construc40ft. long, being at the rate of 1ft. in length for cluding purchase of land, way leave, parliamentary tion, and being effective and not expensive in every 30 acres of drainage area. and engineering expenses, amounted to £70,000. first cost it ensures to consumers all the advantages of Clegg's governor without its attendant evils. To obtain the full benefits of the regulator care should be taken that the pressure yielded by it does not exceed that indicated. The most appropriate gas burners should be used, and the all the burners to be amply supplied with the diminished pressure. It was originally intended to strip the entire surface of the inside of the reservoir, as vegetable matter was formerly considered objectionable, but the cost of this led the Commissioners to disponse with it. STRODE'S GAS REGULATOR. I be sufficiently large, The sluice upstand, in the horseshoe recess, was of cast iron 2ft. 6in. in diameter in the inside, and 35ft. high, the metal being in. thickness. It had four sluices at different levels, each being 17in. square, and fitted with double brass faces. The compensation water was discharged through a separate pipe, with an independent sluice, and the water for the town was conveyed into a cast-iron well, which was constructed with an overflow to take the pressure off the clay pipes, which led from it towards Paisley. The total length of the pipe track from the reservoir to Stanely was 11,126 yards, of which part was of iron pipes, I art of clay pipes, and part of masonry aqueducts, the pipes varying in diameter from 16in. to 21in. The trench was excavated 1ft. wider at the bottom than the exterior diameter of the pipe, and opposite each faucet there was a clear space of Gin. all round, to permit of the proper jointing of the pipes. The clay pipes were jointed with rope yarn and cement; while the iron pipes, which were for the most part turned and bored, were put together with thin cement. Where clay pipes were used in cuttings above 9ft. deep, a relieving arch of rough rubble was formed over them, which served thoroughly to protect them from crushing. Where the depth of the cutting exceeded 12ft., a masonry aqueduct was substituted for the clay pipes, the sectional area of which was 3ft. by 2ft. The filters constructed at Craigenfeoch for Johnstone and Elderslie were two in number, each 45ft. by 32ft., and the tank was 50ft. by 26ft. and 13ft. deep. The retaining walls were brought up with a void of 4in. in the heart, with two dovetailed recesses to form a tie opposite each other, 12in. by 6in. by Gin. deep, for every square yard of surface. These voids were filled with clean gravel in layers of 6in., and each layer was grouted with Portland cement. This formed an excellent water-tight wall, the only objection being the cost, which amounted to between 40s. and 50s. a cubic yard. There were two semicircular wells at the outlet of the filters with sluices to regulate the head of N order to obtain the greatest economical effect burn it at a low pressure. The largest percentage of light is always obtained when the gas issues from the burners at the smallest pressure which will enable it to overcome the friction of its pashowever, the gas companies are obliged to deliver sage through the tubes and fittings. In practice, the gas from their mains at high pressures, in order to ensure a sufficient supply to meet the requirements of an ever-varying demand. Other circumstances which necessitate a high pressure supply are to be found in the pipes, which are constantly liable to be choked by deposit, and which also, from the increased consumption, are often too small for the district they supply. As this state of things can only be rectified at considerable intervals of time and by a large outlay, the difficulty of supply is in the meantime overcome by sending out the gas at a much higher pressure than is necessary for proper and economical combustion. The consumer, therefore, suffers, and in large establishments the annual loss is something considerable. The desideratu:n has, therefore, always been an efficient instrument which should regulate this pressure at the consumer's end of the pipe. To be efficient this instrument must be self-acting and have the effect of reducing the high and variable pressure to such an uniformly low one as will give the best results in light for the quantity of gas consumed. This instrument is the regulator, and it is generally attached to the outlet of the gas meter at the entrance to the premises. In principle it consists of a suspended plug or cono, which opens or closes the orifice through which the gas passes in direct accordance with the decrease or increase of the pressure in the company's pipes. Regulators are of various constructions, but all embrace the above principles. Some are made so as to require oil or water for their action; the oil, however, is apt to congeal, whilst the water freezes if subject to low temperatures and evaporates with high ones. The late Mr. Samuel Clegg, C.E., many ENGLISH AND CONTINENTAL IRON THE WORKERS. THE future position of England with special reference to the iron and metal trades is a subject worthy the attention of all interested in the question. We may start out by saying that the chief European rivals with which our manufacturers have to cope are the Germans, the French, and the Belgians. Of late years we have witnessed such an outburst of enterprise on the part of the great German people that we have been utterly astonished, and in some cases have disbelieved in the existence of such results. It is not many years since that the Birmingham button makers would not believe that the Germans were at work erecting machinery, and getting up designs to compete with the old staple of their town. No, not even when orders were absolutely in Birmingham for machinery for the very purpose. But now that the articles made by their continental rivals are superseding those made by the Birmingham makers a very general awakening has taken place, and the existence of a sharp and successful rivalry is at length acknowledged. It is admitted on all hands that the English manufacturer has brought this rivalry upon himself by not paying more attention to his work, by not introducing a more artistic design into his manufactures, and by not attempting to cheapen the production of all articles which were intended for general consumption. The growing wants of the world were not sufficiently met, and to the acute, highly educated, and enterprising men of Germany, this was an opportunity not to be lost sight of. They at once took advantage of the new demand, and have met it with great spirit, and in many cases to the detriment of our own workpeople. It is perhaps not reasonable to sup pose that we could either meet the demands of the whole world, or that we could hinder other nations from sharing in the general trade. But being in possession of the markets gave us a position far superior to other people, and had we taken the utmost advantage of our favourable position we might have prevented others from coming in for many years. We submit the following particulars respecting the working classes in Prussia, which will show the extreme difference which exists between them and our own work-people. The total number of males and females connected with the mining and metallurgic industries of Prussia is over 200,000, and the following information relating to the wages paid in the mines and ironworks of Upper Silesia, has been collected by Mr. Overgens, a civil engineer, in a professional tour, which he made in 1868: Haulers ("Schlepper")... Coke Works Workwomen Blast furnaces... 1st Class smelters......... Chargers of furnaces... 2nd Class ditto Boiler-men Iron rolling 1st Class workmen at Works. Masters directing the workmen at two the puddling furnaces 3rd Class ditto... £10 10s. to £12 15s. a month. Iron foundries... Moulders and assistant 2nd Class ditto Mines and Class of Workmen. Works. Wages per day. d. 1 114 73 Workmen... ... ............... dem-outsag Upon examination, it will be seen that the rate The condition of the workers in the metal and PROFESSOR HUXLEY ON THE FORMATION hardware trades is of a similar character to that of the miners and ironworkers. The main difference between the German workpeople and our tion, that 1ft. of coal represents fifty generawe adopt own is in the superior education provided for the tions of coal plants; and, further, make the moderate people. The system now about to be introduced supposition that each generation of coal plants took in this country has been in existence in Germany ten years to come to maturity-then each foot-thickfor many years, and Mr. Petre gives the follow-ness of coal represents 500 years. The superimposed ing account of the school system :beds of coal in one coalfield may amount to a thickness of 50ft. or 60ft., and, therefore, the coal alone, in that field, represents 500 x 50 = 25,000 years. But the actual coal is but an insignificant portion of the total deposit, which, as has been seen, may amount to between two and three miles of vertical thickness. Suppose it to be 12,000ft.-which is 240 times the thickness of the actual coal-is there any reason why we should believe it may not have taken 240 times as long to form? I know of none. But in this case, the time which the coal field represents would be 25,000 x 240 6,000,000 years. As affording a definite chronology, of course such calculations as these are of no value; but they have much use in fixing one's attention upon a possible minimum. A man may be puzzled if he is asked how long Rome took a-building; but he is proverbially safe it he affirms it not to have been built in a day; and our geological calculations are all, at present, pretty much on that footing. A second consideration which the study of the coal brings prominently before the mind of any one who is familiar with paleontology is, that the coal Flora, viewed in relation to the enormous period of time which lasted, and to the still vaster period which has elapsed since it flourished, underwent little change while it endured, and, in its peculiar character, differs strangely little from that which at present exists. The same species of plants are to be met with throughout the whole thickness of a coalfield, and the youngest are not sensibly different from the oldest. But more than this. Notwithstanding that the carboniferous period is separated from us by more than the whole time represented by the Secondary and Tertiary forma tions, the great types of vegetation were as distinct then as now. The structure of the modern club "It is scarcely necessary that I should state that primary education in Prussia is obligatory for all children without distinction, who are not incapacitated by illness or other causes from attending school, from the age of 6 to 14. The result of this compulsory system is that of the whole number of children to whom it applies, including those incapacitated as above-mentioned, only about 14 per cent. absent themselves from school altogether, and that of the recruits annually drafted into the army not more than 4 per cent. are found to have received no education whatever, and only 12 per cent. who can read nothing but print. On the other hand, it is thought by many that the guiding principles which regulate the preparatory education of the school teachers, as well as the course of instruction given in the primary schools, and which are of universal application, are somewhat too rigid in their uniformity. They do not sufficiently take into account the various degrees of intelligence of the pupils who frequent them or the great difference that exists between the different Provinces of the Monarchy, for example, between the east and west, as regards the general standard of intellectual culture. "Exclusive of the higher class of polytechnic and of technical schools there exists for the benefit of the industrial classes what are called 'Fortbildungstehulen,' literally schools for education, and which are for the use of young artisans (journeymen, apprentices, and factory operatives) who have passed the period of compulsory attendance at the primary schools. moss furnishes a complete explanation of the fossil remains of the Lepidodendra, and the fronds of some "The course of teaching at these schools is of the ancient ferns are hard to distinguish either limited to simply continuing the elementary from existing ones. At the same time, it must be teaching of the primary schools, or it aims at a remembered that there is nowhere in the world, at somewhat higher degree of instruction, regard present, any forest which bears more than a rough being had in most cases to the future industrial analogy with a coal forest. The types may remain, career of the pupil. They are totally distinct but the details of their form, their relative proporhowever, from technical schools. tions, their associates, are all altered. And the treeof wages paid in Prussia is very much lower than "Instruction is usually given in the Fort- fern forest of Tasmania or New Zealand gives one that paid to similar work people in this country, bildungstchulen' for a few hours on Sundays, and only a faint and remote image of the vegetation of the ancient world. Once more an invariably and will account, in some measure, for the cheaper occasionally on week days. In winter the attend-recurring lesson of geological history, at whatever productions of Prussia. And when we consider ance is more assiduous and frequent than during point its study is taken up-the lesson of the almost that in the same district of Silesia the annual the summer. Complaints of the irregularity of infinite slowness of the modification of living forms sum required to support a man and his family the attendance at these schools are general, and the lines of the pedigrees of living things break varies from £20 to £30 we may form an esti- the Education Bill which has been introduced this mate of the sufficiency or insufficiency of the workmen's earnings to meet the necessary cost of living. Mr. Petre, in his report upon the material and social condition of the artisan and industrial classes in Prussia, says: session proposes to invest the communal boards "The total number of Fortbildungstehulen' off almost before they begin to converge. Finally, yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of the stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with much belly and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the coal his small brain to reflect upon the showers of spores forest, could have had thinking power enough in "Amongst the working classes in Prussia the which kept on falling through years and centuries, miners and ironworkers hold an exceptional posiwhile perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled its tion, inasmuch as their welfare and interests are apparent purpose, and produced the organism which attended to by the government officials who are gave it birth, surely he might have been excused appointed to superintend all the mines, ironworks, for moralising upon the thoughtless and wanton exand saltworks in the kingdom. This class of the The results of this school system are now seen travagance which Nature displayed in her operations. labouring population is animated by an honour- in the success of nearly every branch of German la- But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed able esprit de corps dating from the earliest times, bour. In the peaceful arts, as well as in the art of war, that a certain vein of thrift runs through this appa predecessor-or possibly ancestor-and can perceive and forming a singular exception to the egotist- Prussia has attained a prominence which has sur-rent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and ical tendencies prevalent amongst the working prised everybody. But what the future may have in seems to have had always before her eyes the adage, classes of the present day. The great importance store for Prussia we cannot easily say. The pre-" 'Keep a thing long enough, and you will find a use naturally attached to the conservation of so able sent ruinous war is draining the life-blood from for it." She has kept her beds of coals many miland staunch a race of workmen as these miners the ranks of labour, and if it goes on much longer lions of years without being able to find much use and ironworkers has induced both the State and serious consequences must ensue. Therefore, it for them; she has sent them down beneath the sea, the private owners of the larger works to provide behoves English manufacturers to take advantage and the sea-beasts could make nothing of them; she suitable dwellings for them, and to make such of Prussia's present necessities, and exert them-has raised them up into dry land, and laid the black general provision for their comfort and well-selves to recover lost opportunities. With regard living being on the face of the earth that could see veins bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no being as to make their lot an enviable one in com- to France, we fear that she will be in trouble for any sort of value in them; and it was only the other parison with many of their fellow labourers. some years to come, both in her social and indus- day, so to speak, that she turned a new creature out They seldom, however, succeed in amassing any of her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient considerable savings, and some of them emigrate wits to make a fire, and then to discover that the from time to time to other countries where black rock would burn. I suppose that 1,900 years the mining industry is on a smaller scale than ago, when Julius Caesar was good enough to deal with Britons as we have dealt with New Zealand, the primeval Briton, blue with coal and woad, may he found lumps here and there in his wanderings, have known that the strange black stone, of which would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his food. Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English people grew into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full return for the capital she had invested in the ancient club here. trial life. Just before the present war broke out France had attained a high state of prosperity, and all things seemed to be going on well with her. She was to all appearance taking the lead in every artistic and manufacturing enterprise, but the "The miners and ironworkers of Upper Silesia terrible collapse of all her energies since she enare almost exclusively Poles. They contrast tered upon the struggle has created the most prounfavourably with the German workmen in their found astonishment in the minds of all thoughtful addiction to debauchery and dissipation, so much people. Here, again, we would urge upon the so that in many of the works where they are employed measures have been adopted for paying the weekly wages due to them to their wives to British manufacturer the importance of preparing |