THE only accounting for the formation of gold, but not of the sulphurets which would under such circumstances be inevitably decomposed. MECHANICS' MAGAZINE. subsequent electrical influence-at first an However, it was undoubtedly owing to the LONDON: FRIDAY, DECEMBER 30, 1870. THE CREATION OF GOLD. formation, which before the upheaval of the electro-chemical one evolved by the disinteg- It may, therefore, be safely maintained HERE are but few metals, or metallic they are gold, iron, and arsenical pyrites-ties, or were in other ways influenced by to be profitable, be carried on according to the last two in some instances in large quan-electrical agency. It is to the action of these the rules of that systematic mining which tities, copper pyrites, zinc blende, galena, electrical currents that the present partially has been adopted in the working of metallimolybdenite, pharmacssiderite, hematite, and or entirely disintegrated state of the upper ferous lodes which present the same general malachite. The last-named three, however, levels of the quartz lodes is chiefly attribut- features. Auriferous quartz lodes are usually are oxygenated, and are to be regarded only able. From the igneous origin of the auri- found cropping out at the heads of gulleys, as minerals of secondary formation. These ferous quartz lodes and metallic ores, it which flow from schistose ranges, and which minerals evidently ascended simultaneously would be inferred that the gangue would contain an auriferous deluvial or alluvial with the quartz, and the contemporaneous exhibit a homogeneous character. This deposit. In many instances the prospecting formation of the quartz gangue, the arseni- is not invariably the case, however, though it of such quartz lodes will require a longer urets, and sulphurets, implies the forcing up is so generally. When homogeneity occurs, it time and the expenditure of more capital of the minerals in question in a sublimated is due, no doubt, to the subsequent re-opening than might at first be supposed necessary, for state. The heat of the molten silica would of the gangue fissures, more recent protrusion frequently even where the lode has been necessarily volatilize the gold in the form of of quartz rock having almost disconnected struck at different levels, the metalliferous a vapour of a purple colour, and would also the more ancient veins, or else formed a new shoots have not been reached. Properly sublimate the arseniurets and sulphurets, body in their midst, and so giving to the whole conducted prospecting operations should not which are all volatilizable, without being de- for some distance a flaky, laminated, or only serve to discover the auriferous quartz composed, at a much lower temperature than seamy appearance. This appearance is greatly but become preparatory works for the further gold, the air being excluded. Hence they increased by entangled schistose fragments development of the mine. are found decomposed only when near the and veins of metallic substances, either desurface and exposed to the action of the at- composed or otherwise. But that order of mosphere. Thus the purple fumes of metallic deposition of different substances correspondgold, and the sublimated vapours of the ing with the faithful parallelism from the arseniurets and sulphurets of other metals sides of the lode cannot be found, although entering the quartz gangue, permeated it as it is a remarkable feature in many veins congaseous vapours, forming veins, shoots, and taining carbonates of lime, iron, &c. streaks, interlacing the gangue in the direction of its stretch, penetrating also into the recesses of the quartz veins and leaders. The gold would be precipitated in gold leaves, film, &c., on bodies comparatively cold, as the sides of the lodes, or entangled pieces of schist, and be accompanied by the sulphurets and arseniurets. These latter and other volatile metals influenced the volatilization of gold, and in this way it was carried into and lodged in the cavities, crevices, joints, and sides of the lodes, where it certainly could not possibly have reached unaccompanied by the sulphurets and arseniurets. T minerals, to be found in quartz lodes, and probably assidud of their chemical proper and the raising of "stone" from them should, Hence we find gold in a metallic state mixed mechanically with iron and arsenical pyrites. Sometimes it is perceptible to the naked eye, and at other times not. It is also frequently found intermixed with zinc blende and galena. Indeed, it is hardly possible to find either of the two last-named minerals without finding also gold in contact with it. In this way proper ventilation may be effected, drainage secured, "winzes " cut, and "pitches" got ready in connection with former workings, while the mechanical appliances, as crushing machines, &c., &c., are being got in readiness for subsequent profitable employment. Into the economy of gold mining generally it is not now desirable to go further. Our main object has been to set forth what appears to be the truthful theory of the creation of gold, and thus to shed fresh light upon a subject which, so long as the earth exists and mankind is constituted as at present, cannot fail to be regarded with intense interest. NEW BOOKS. In some of the Australian districts the quartz lodes have been disturbed by felspathic or igneous rocks, forming dykes of a much more recent epoch. Hitherto the felspathic rocks of Bendigo and Maryborough have received the most attention. In the former district they are found at times traversing the quartz lodes, following their strike or faulting them. In other cases separating their courses they crop out on the surface. They are greatly disintegrated, so much so that it is not possible at present to give their mineralogical composition with THE reputation of Messrs. Letts, Son, and Co.'s has been established for cal age." accuracy, or to determine their true geologiThey do not seem to contain years. The present editions for 1871 contain zeolites, but appear to be intimately connected many subjects of great usefulness; some of with the subsequent changes in quartz lodes them are furnished with maps, and others such as the re-opening of the quartz veins, with memoranda of importance. They are and also the occurrence of large masses of got up in all styles of binding, and are suited arsenical pyrites, which is a most interesting for all purposes. Their pocket series is elefact, showing the connection of this metalli- gantly and tastefully prepared, No. 20 size in ferous ore with heat. particular, being arranged in every way likely From what has been advanced as to the to meet the requirements of a lady at home Of the minerals referred to, iron and igneous origin of auriferous quartz lodes it or shopping. In this division we may menarsenical pyrites are found in large quantities may be logically deduced that the presence nient in arrangement, cheap, and eminently tion their new oblong metallic diaries, convein the quartz gangue, but copper pyrites, of sulphurets and arseniurets in a quartz practical. The clergy are well looked after, galena, and zinc blende are seldom found at lode is an empirical test of its comparative with a special Tablet Diary at 1s., giving the all, or, if so, in very insignificant quantities. auriferous character, that the appearance of It is to be remarked that the affinity of these igneous dykes in connection with quartz lodes lessons, &c., for every day in the year. The different minerals is according to the follow- and contemporaneous with those mentioned medical profession have a capital half-crown ing scale: first, galena; then, and almost, if would give a more auriferous stamp to any book specially devoted to them, whilst the not quite, equally, zinc blende; arsenical py- district, and that auriferous quartz are to be public at large has the Broad Shilling Diary, rites come next, and iron pyrites follow, and expected intersecting the schistose formation cloth bound (as much for one's money as any therefore gold is contained in the gangue at any depth. The last statement, which is man need want), No. 31, a large foolscap inalong the shoot of these metalliferous ores. of much importance to the future seekers for terleaved blotting, a capital calendar for every When the gangue is far apart from the gold, is borne out fully by the following day in the year, 1s. 4d., and a tiny waistcoatmetalliferous indications, it is generally considerations:-First, it can be easily ima-pocket or purse almanac at 6d. All these barren. On this theory it is not difficult to gined, if the enormous abrasion be taken into diaries give, inter alia, monthly averages of account for the flat leaders and the running account, how deep the present surface with temperature, barometer, rainfall, and direcout of the quartz stretches, nor the caps of its yet auriferous quartz lodes must have tion of the wind, whilst many contain a conreefs being often richer than the rest of the been below that which existed before abrasion densed postal district guide, public amusegangue, or to understand the richness of reefs took place! Again, the granite which simul-ments, theatres, &c., in London, the winners when they suddenly become contracted for a taneously upheaved the Cambro-Silurian of the University boat races, Derby, Oaks, certain length. auriferous quartz lodes disturbed the thick &c., and useful information respecting regisAn attempt has been made to explain the schistose formation with such gigantic force tration of births, deaths, marriages, and origin of gold as being the result of precipita- that it contorted and placed the beds on vaccination. The ladies, moreover, have a tion by iron from its solution under the in- edge, thereby causing convulsions and faults housekeeper," giving a condensed cellar fluence of electricity. Without entering into on a scale far too large to be noticed by the book, a gas register, poultry, garden, or the chemical phase of this theory, it may be miner. It is manifest, too, that in some in- stable account, dinners and flowers in season, sufficient to remark that it is one-sided, as stances strata of the schistose and quartzose( 66 * LETTS, SON, and Co. (Limited), New Cross, S.E. and many other most useful tables for house-"Monarch" in her reputation. She joined the hold purposes. To those persons who have relations in, or do any business with, our Australian colonies, we can recommend the Handbook* published by Messrs. Gordon and Gotch. These gen tlemen have spent many years in those parts, and are therefore acquainted with the various districts, so that the information they give can be relied upon. The book is very interesting, and contains a heap of matter of a practical character which will be found of service to intending emigrants. IN Channel squadron, went well through a moderate We know what master laid thy keel, What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea, Our hearts, our hopes are all with thee. The triumph of the "Captain" was complete. In vain Mr. Reed spoke in the "Times" of the "alarming nature of the error committed in building the "Captain." He was told that even the errors made in her contributed to her superiority to all his ships. More definite information MR. E. J. REED, C.B., ON THE NAVY. of her actual condition reached Mr. Reed at the "Macmillan's Magazine' for last month moment, and he answered that her "stability was there is an article on "The Navy," by Mr. E. compromised;" but the victorious party only saw J. Reed, C.B., late Chief Constructor of the Navy, "animus" and "antagonism" in his suggestions. which contains the materials for much thought The construction of the British Navy had obviously and discussion. We purpose here to give a sy-passed out of his hands into the hands of Captain nopsis of this important article for several reasons. Coles. It was only necessary to increase the First, as is generally well known, Mr. Reed, pre-umber of "Captains" largely, and the omnipovious to his appointment at the Admiralty, most tence of England would be secured. honourably and ably conducted the editorship of For years Mr. Reed had been combating, with this journal; and it is in no small degree owing all the advantages of an official position, not the to his labours, and his ability, and probity, that it turret system, but the abandonment of scientific occupies its present distinguished position. Se- principles in its application, and in particular the condly, we know it to be the wish of large numbers building of ships with the bad features of this of our subscribers and readers that any important Captain," and with no better result than this! statement made by Mr. Reed on naval affairs For the last year in particular, the pressure generally, and shipbuilding in particular, should brought to bear upon him in favour of the system find a record in our pages. This second reason had been very great and hard to resist. The hour is the more important in consequence of our of justification would certainly arrive; but for the having many subscribers in foreign countries who present, as Mr. Reed had himself no means of calhave not an opportunity probably of seeing "Mac-culating the "Captain's" stability in her actual millan," and whose observation the article would thereby escape altogether, unless perhaps some meagre notice in a foreign journal. Thirdly, we ourselves believe in the truth of the statements which Mr. Reed makes public, and in the soundness of the inferences he deduces therefrom. We shall, therefore, as briefly as possible, at once deal with the article in question. 66 condition, and could not therefore give precise Spirit of Contradiction-well, lead on! As his objections to the ship were, however, How they beard me, in deflance due crankness, and may even, on the contrary, give evidence of ample stability under ordinary conditions, and up to a certain angle of inclination, and yet be liable at any moment to find her stability fail her utterly under the freshening of the breeze or the passing of a squall. And this is precisely what happened with the "Captain." The confidence of Captain Coles in her, which (from some letters that have been printed) appears to have been seriously shaken by Mr. Reed's published descriptions of the dangers of rigged ships with low freeboards, is said to have increased as he saw her stand up well under canvas in moderate winds. But alas! even in those moments she was rocking on the verge of perdition. It is this awful proximity of triumph and ruin-this terrible nearness of life-pride and death-peril in experiments with ships-this grinning of the skeleton in the very face of the seaman-that makes Mr. Reed tremble for the future. The The successful construction of the Navy for the future must absolutely depend upon the disposition and ability of the Government to give its confidence to proper persons. Unhappily, the stronger the Government the greater is the risk. One thing is perfectly certain, viz., that good political administration will not supply the place of scientific skill in the Admiralty offices. next consideration is that, if the Government is misleadable, there are, unhappily, plenty to mislead it. That limited class of naval officers, who may almost be counted upon the fingers, but who are active and influential out of all proportion to their numbers and professional knowledge, have already been at their dire work in the columns of the newspapers and elsewhere. One maintains that the great fault in the " Captain" was that she had too little beam; another, that she had too much beam; another, that the position of her centre of gravity only was in fault; another, that the ship was not faulty at all, but faultily handled. They are all most anxious to guard the public against accepting scientific views, and they all, or nearly all, appear to entertain two fixed opinionsfirst, that the centre of gravity of a ship is like an article of store, which can be drawn from the dockyard and stowed on the upper deck or in the hold, just as may be convenient; and secondly, that the laws of nature are like a file of marines, and can be ordered about in the same manner, Frovided only the proper degree of authority be thrown into the word of command. Mr. Reed commences by saying:-" It is no longer possible to take up one's pen to write upon the Navy,' without pain and humiliation." After briefly alluding to the melancholy night off Cape Finisterre, when the "Captain," which cost nearly £400,000, turned quietly over, carrying with her to the bottom five hundred of her officers It is now patent to the world that all the confi- It is much to be apprehended that some of the and crew, Mr. Reed recalls the circumstances dence in the "Captain," involving as it did a corre- more industrious of these gentlemen will, ere which led to the construction of this unfortunate sponding depreciation of almost the entire iron-clad long, be found acting together in favour of some ship. In consequence of the pressure brought to navy of this country, was utterly baseless. It has one of the many dangerous forms of the turretbear upon the Government both by the Press and been admitted in evidence that this vaunted ship ship which still offer themselves for selection, and Parliament, and numerous naval officers, in favour was designed, built, and sent to sea by Captain bring the same insensate pressure to bear upon the of mounting naval guns in turrets-" a system," Coles and his coadjutors without any one taking Government, through Parliament and the Press, says Mr. Reed, "having some advantages and the trouble to calculate whether she possessed the as has proved so disastrous in the present case, some disadvantages, the number and magni- quality of standing up under her canvas or not, the great bulk of the members of the naval sertude of the latter increasing greatly when the her stability at any but small angles of inclination vice preserving the dignified silence which chasystem came to be applied to sea-going ships"- never having been calculated at all! The calcula-racterises all but the blatant few. the Government determined to make the expe- tions of her stability at small angles of inclination, But it would not be in the least degree fair to riment. The fact of the guns having to be which alone were made, of necessity missed alto-the naval service to suppose that members of that carried in turrets was no reason, in Mr. Reed's gether the essential feature of her case, viz., the profession only will be found among the advocates opinion, for resorting to a very much lower loss of stability after the immersion of the deck of fallacious principles and dangerous schemes. side than was usual in other large sea-going iron- commenced. Those gentlemen who in Parliament Mr. Henry Bessemer has furnished a striking exclad ships, although from the central position were continually urging the Government to adopt ample of the lengths to which amateurs may run of the guns, some decrease in the height of side Captain Coles's plans never took the trouble to when they undertake to regulate the construction appeared practicable. The Controller of the Navy, inquire how this was; that little knot of naval of an iron-clad ship. Mr. Bessemer's scheme has the Admirals of the Board, and Mr. Reed, were of officers who pursued a similar course took as little for its object the preservation of the low freeboard one opinion as to the height of side necessary, and trouble; the "able editors" who (with more excuse in rigged ships, and his method of preventing this was fixed at 14ft., and Mr. Reed's design perhaps) joined them in the was prepared accordingly. Captain Coles, how-equally indifferent; and so the thing came to pass weights by fitting a large mass of iron in a cavity were them from capsizing consists in balancing the topever, urged the building of a vessel with a much as we have seen. The danger of a full-rigged along the line of keel, and lowering it down to a lower side. He was placed in communication ship with such low sides as the "Captain" actually depth of 10ft. or 12ft. below the keel by means of with private persons, and he and they together bad-with no side at worth mentioning when massive hydraulic rams, when it is considerad produced a design which was considered free from inclined a little-ought have been suspected by serious objection in all respects, excepting lowness every nautical man necessary in a gale of wind, for example, Dia. who beneld her. Mr. Reed of side. Mr. Reed called attention, however, to an engineer should propose to add to the present was told by a naval oficer present at the court- accumulation of machinery and heavy weights the necessity for special care in regulating both martial that he could not then look at the model of in an iron-clad ship enebrous and costly devices og the weight and stability of this vessel. The Adini- the ship, which was there, without a feeling of this nature, for serving such a purpose, is lemak ralty ordered a ship from each design, the " Mo-horror, so utterly deficient of power to withstandable, but Mr. Bessemer misconceives the very first narch" and the "Captain," the former to be built the pressure of her canvas did the ship appear. principles of nautical science. Mr. Bessemer, in under official care and responsibility. In due And yet many a seaman looked at the ship herself a letter published in the "Times" of Septemtime both ships were completed, the Monarch without suspecting this obvious danger. At the conforming with singular exactness to her design, same time there was this truly awful feature in and the "Captain proving as singularly heavy, the "Captain's case the stability of the ship and having her turret deck brought down to within was of that nature that whon it failed her it 6ft. of the water-less than even half the would fail her utterly, and almost without note of height of the "Monarch's "a state of things warning. Insufficient stability in an ordinary which, in Mr. Reed's judgment, put all reasonable ship usually gives abundant evidence of its exhope of her ultimate success as a sea-going man- istence, and the remedy for it is well known. of-war out of the question in many ways. But it is the fatal quality of a rigged ship with low free-board that she may give no sign of un same cry, ber 24th says:-"As a first condition for stability it is essential that the centre of gravity of the vessel should in all cases be below the line of flotation. This will ensure the stability of the vessel so long as the mast is in a vertical position, or nearly so; but the weight of the several parts may nevertheless be so distributed at different distances from the metre centre that, on the mast making a considerable angle to the horizon, the centre of gravity may be shifted to a point far above the line of flotation, and then the stability Up to the fatal night of the 6th of September, the "Captain," however, was as fortunate as the "The Australian Handbook and Almanac for 871. taken, the word here employed has a letter less than of the vessel will be wholly destroyed, and she GORDON and GоTCH, Holborn Hill, London. Price 18. * In Dr. Auster's version, from which these lines are above written. would necessarily heel over more and more until she falls on her beam ends. Now, these conditions are but too likely to obtain in iron-clad turret ships, because the chief weight of their armour is above the line of flotation, and the massive turret and guns are placed still higher up, and above all are the heavy masts, easily enough balanced while the vessel remains upright." tain" to disappear altogether from the view of the other ships; and it must be obvious that at the same time the other ships disappeared from Her firing under such the view of her gunners. circumstances clearly must have been subject to disadvantages which would not have attended, in the same degree, at least, a similar ship with At the same time, looking at Now, in the first place, it is absolutely wrong to higher freeboard. say that it is a condition of stability that the the many advantages in other respects of keeping centre of gravity of the vessel should in all cases the ship low, there is reason to believe that a be below the line of flotation. Thousands of somewhat less height of side than the 14ft. of ships and vessels have their centres of gravity the "Monarch" would, on the whole, have been above the line of flotation, and have abundant, preferable. Mr. Reed does not speak with cernot unfrequently excessive, stability notwithstand-tainty upon this point, because, as he says, it is ing. Imagine a large raft, very broad as well as by no means established that the sails of the long, formed of logs of a light wood, say of some- "Captain" were worked satisfactorily on the what less than one-half the specific gravity of hurricane deck. On the contrary, it is pretty water, the logs composing it being placed close to- certain that the space of that deck was too congether. Its centre of gravity will obviously be tracted for the purpose, as he always believed it situated at the middle of its depth; its line of would be. Taking it for granted that the sails of flotation will be somewhat lower than the mid-such ships must be worked from the turret deck, dle of its depth; the former will therefore be it does not appear that the "Monarch's "side is at above the latter. According to Mr. Bessemer, such all too high for a ship of her type. The conclusion 2 raft will not float flatwise. Or imagine a light at which Mr. Reed has arrived is, that while the wooden or steel barge of rectangular sections, and construction of sea-going turret ships should unof large proportionate breadth, with its deck equal doubtedly be pursued, it must still be considered in weight to the flat bottom. The centre of an experimental question, both as regards the progravity of this barge, like that of the raft, will be portions and details of the turret ship itself, and at half its depth, while the water line may be as regards the fitness of the best possible ship of much below it. Yet, is it not contrary to all ex- the kind to compete with the best ships of the perience to say that such a barge must capsize? broadside type. He says, however, that it is the The fact is Mr. Bessemer's condition is a pure duty of the Government to rigidly exclude from chimera. His later observations, quoted above, the next sea-going turret ship that is laid down appear to imply further that the stability of a vos- every feature which would tend to compromise sel, even when his condition is fulfilled, will be the safety of the ship under the ordinary condigreatest at and near the upright position-another tions of the naval service. radical error, and he also seems to speak of the centre of gravity shifting in a fashion unknown to science. Mr. Reed says he could go on to fill pages with exhibitions of the fallacies put forward, even since the loss of the "Captain," for the guidance of the Government; but he thinks he has already said enough to show that the task of the Government still is, as it has heretofore been, to steer a right course, not only but also In spite of rocks and tempest's roar, (To be continued.) THE ROYAL INSTITUTION. LAST Tuesday, the ordinary work of the Royal left nothing in the tube but pure nitrogen. This nitrogen, he then proved by experiment, would not support combustion. Dr. Odling pointed out that, although mercury does not oxidise in the air at ordinary temperatures, it rusts very slowly when it is kept at a high temperature, and then it changes slowly into red oxide of mercury. Dr. Odling applied heat to red oxide of mercury contained in a tube, and thus drove off the oxygen once more; he mixed the oxygen thus made with five times its bulk of nitrogen, then proved by experiment that the resulting mixture had all the properties of common air. In another experiment he proved that the chief products of the combustion going on in a candle flame were water and carbonic acid gas; a common sperm candle, weighing 2oz., produces in burning no less than 34oz. of water, or more than its own weight. The aditional weight of the product of combustion is, of course, due to the oxygen taken from the atmosphere. At the close of this lecture Dr. Odling exhibited the ignition and combustion of the metals-silver, cadmium, zinc, and thallium. A hollow was scooped in the top of the lowermost carbon point of the electric lamp, and in this hollow a piece of silver was placed; when the upper carbon point was allowed to touch the silver, the electrical current quickly raised the silver to boiling temperature, and on separating the points, a broad brilliant arc of vapour of silver played between them. This phenomenon, magnified by the lenses of the electric lamp, was projected upon the screen, forming a beautiful green luminous are, apparently about Gft. long. Cadmium gave a more subdued bluish green light, and the solid oxide was seen to assume curious network forms upon the lower carbon point. Zinc burnt with a purple flame. Thallium gave a magnificent green arc, of very considerable length. During the autumn recess the theatre of the Royal Institution has been re-decorated and freshly painted. The gallery has been enlarged, a new white screen for the reception of images thrown by the electric lamp has been fixed to the walls, the ventilation has been improved, and several other changes for the better have been made. NOTES BY QUIDNUNC. In spite of false lights on the shore: The next question Mr. Reed says is-How far Dr. Odling began by explaining the first prinare the naval architects of the Admiralty likely to ciples of combustion, and showing the simplest When speaking of keep sound principles in mind through the mass methods of lighting a match. of error that surrounds them, and to make a good the old method of obtaining a light by means of EUTER'S telegram of the 25th communicated 11 once fight for such principles? Political influence is flint and steel, he exhibited the "steel mill the interesting information that "the last diaoften hostile to science; will they fight it? Naval in common use among English miners, to give phragm has just been bored exactly in the middle influence is often equally hostile; will they con- them just enough light to proceed with their of the Mont Cenis tunnel." The great tunnel is test that? Newspaper influence is the same; will work. It consisted of a little steel wheel driven not through the Mont Cenis, although the line they resist that? Mr. Reed speaks highly of the by multiplying gear, and made to rub against a which approaches it is, for a considerable distance, professional skill of Mr. Barnaby, Mr. Barnes, and piece of flint; by this method a continuous shower through the Mont Cenis pass, by way of the great their colleagues at the Admiralty. He regretted of sparks could be kept up. He then exhibited military road constructed 1803-10, by Chevalier to observe, however, that a firmer stand was not the old method of obtaining a light by means of Fabbioni, to the order of the first Napoleon. Its made by them at the court martial respecting the a piece of bent steel, one part of which was allowed cost was somewhere about £300,000. This great absolute danger of the "Captain," especially with to hang down over the knuckles of the left hand, road may be said to begin at Chambery, the capital the actual details of her instability in their hands. and this part was struck with a piece of flint held of Savoy, and thence passes through the valley of The Mr. Reed says it is to close our eyes to the true in the other hand. With each blow a few sparks the River Isere, and, afterwards, of the Arc. scientific import of the late catastrophe, to look to were struck off, and these sparks were allowed to new tunnel route will, like the Mont Conis summit a less spread of canvas, or a more wary use of the fall upon carbonised rags, better known as "tin-route, commence at St. Michel, in Savoy. This sail-power, or a somewhat lower centre of gravity, der;" the tinder at once began to smoulder, this little town is quite Alpine, and English visitors, as a sufficient remedy for the radical and fatal smouldering was increased by blowing, so that at with quarters at the Hotel de Poste, cannot fail to defect which the low freeboard involved in that last there was ignition enough to set fire to a be much impressed by the novelty of the situation. ship; and he also says that he shall not feel satis-splint of wood, the end of which had been previ- Waking or awakened early in the morning byfied until this is thoroughly admitted by all who ously coated with sulphur. The lecturer remarked seriously influence the designs of our future ships. that on a cold winter's morning this tedious To lay stress upon the magnitude of the angle of method of obtaining a light was a very serious vanishing stability is entirely fallacious: the ship thing. He then showed some of the more recent is lost long before that inclination is reached, methods of producing flame, and among others he even in a smooth sea. She is on the brink of ruin lit the gas-jets of the theatre of the Royal Instiwhen the righting force of the sea is not substan- tution with sparks of electricity. tially greater than the wind's force. The bells, bells, bells; Fairs are often held at St. Michel, and the cattle and sheep brought to them have bells innumerable, The lecturer then spoke of ordinary examples of and of every note in the gamut, attached to their Mr. Reed next considers what should be the combustion, such as is seen in gas flames, candle necks. It is a strange sight that presents itself to development of the Navy in the future. With flames, and the household fire; ho pointed out the tourist on opening the window of his chainber, regard to ironclads, there is no doubt in his mind, that coals, candles, and other substances gradually the two halves of which are hinged at the sides, In the street below are crowd of Where do French tashion. that the great experiment of sea-going turret disappear as they burn, and he asked · Monarch auips which has been made in the they go to?" An ordinary sperm candle while cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, a few priests, and many and the "Captain' should be continued. The burning loses in weight about two grains per people. Lach detachment of stock has about as "Captain" herself has illustrated the practica- minute, and it burns down at the rate of lin. per many animals belonging to the genus homo as to the lower orders. For instance, an Alpine farmer bility of carrying and working large guns at sea hour. All this burning, however, goes on in comwith great efficiency in turrets. The "Monarch" mon air; exclude the air and the fire soon goes and his good wife, three children, and a poor has done the same, the great success of the latter out, as it unites with the one-fifth part by volume helpless cretin, to look after a cow, a pig, and two To sheep. The gendarme, with his cocked hat, his ship having shown that the experiment failed in of oxygen gas contained in common air. the "Captain," not from any inherent defect in illustrate this Dr. Odling took a very large glass red worsted epaulettes, his display of dark and the turret system, but from its association in a tube, full of air, into which he poured a small light blue, red, white, and yellow, in his uniform, rigged ship with too low a freeboard. There is quantity of a strong solution of pyrogallic acid, comes out in sharp contrast, as the greatest dandy But other objects attract attention. much evidence tending to show that the freeboard and a little caustic potash; thus a solution of pyro- in the street. was in her case too little, even for the thoroughly gallate of potash was formed. He then closed France, it has been said, is the only country in efficient working of the guns in rough weather. the end of the tube, and shook up the liquid in- which men kiss each other. We see an illustraMr. Reed was informed by officers of the Channel side it; consequently, as fresh pyrogallate of pot- tion: the padre, a great, stalwart man, with a very squadron who watched the ship most carefully, ash absorbs oxygen with very great avidity, the broad-brimmed hat, embraces an Alpine farmer, that it was quite a common thing, with a sea solution took up all the oxygen contained in the vine-grower, or herdsman, almost as big as himrunning, for the guns and turrets of the "Cap-air in the tube, reduced its bulk by one-fifth, and elf. He kisses him first on the right cheek, and then on the left, and, after palaver, they part, with mutual salaams. But, looking up from the streets to the mountain tops, one wonders how the way could have been found into the place. To right and left, and in front, are mountains covered with eternal snows. We have got in by the basin on its right-hand side, and we are not without hope that we will be able to mount higher yet to the left. So it turns out. At the upper end of St. Michel are the workshops and local head-quarters of the Summit Railway Company, and from this station its trains start. From this point, also, the new tunnel route diverges. The summit line, worked by Fell's engines, follows closely the old military road. The approach to the great tunnel is by terraces cut in the mountain's sides, and to the right of the summit line and of the River Arc. The now line passes in the open up the valley to Modane, and, passing the mouth of the great tunnel at Fourneaux, returns by a practicable gradient from Modane, and enters the tunnel. PYRITES. COPPER THE PAYING GAUGE FOR RAILWAYS. ΓΝ The works for the tunnel were commenced in 1857, but the boring apparatus and machinery were not put in operation until 1861. The columns of the MECHANICS' MAGAZINE have often referred to this great engineering work and the mechanical processes that have been employed in its execution. A brief recapitulation of the salient points is all that is necessary at present. The tunnel through this mountainous rock is about seven miles and three-fifths in length, and is through schist for the greater part, limestone, and most untractable quartz. The boring machinery was invented and patented by MM. Grandis, Grattoni, and Sommeiller, the last-named being, if we mistake not, the chief mechanic. The power employed was a combination of the hydraulic and pneumatic. The tunnel was pierced from the two entrances, Fourneaux, near Modane, in Savoy, and from Bardonneche, on the Piedmont side. The one is 3,445ft. above the level of the sea, and the other 4.225ft., which necessitated an ascent of 780ft. This has been overcome by an ascent from one IMPROVEMENTS IN TREATING COPPER entrance to the tunnel and a descent to the other. The boring machinery worked out a space of 12ft. broad by 8ft. high; the remainder of the space, to Meminent French chemist, has just completed RC. M.TESSIE-DU-MOTAY, of Paris, the 26ft. wide-for two lines of rails-by 20ft. high, was excavated by hand labour. At the Fourneaux a new process for the treatment of the sulphuor Savoy end of the tunnel, water was pumped by retted minerals of copper commonly called steam power from the River Arc to a reservoir pyrites. The process comprises an entire change over the entrance to the tunnel. At the Italian in the operations at present in use for the roasting end a reservoir was formed over the tunnel en- of these minerals, which is performed when the trance, from which the mountain streamlets and mineral is in a state of fusion by means of air or rain were collected. From these reservoirs power-oxygen, which at the same time produces a meful pressure was obtained for working the air com- chanical stirring of the materials, which are held pressing machines which furnished the power to in an apparatus specially arranged for this operathe boring tools and the ventilating of the works. tion, the apparatus being shown in the accomThe boring tools, ten in number, with a rapid to-panying engravings. After being reduced to and-fro motion, were worked in a framework the melted state in a cupola H, the melted which travelled upon a tramway. When eighty mineral is led through a tube or passage I into bores had been made, to a depth of about 27in., the roasting and stirring apparatus. This apthey were charged with powder, and the mass em- paratus is chiefly composed of two chambers or braced by the area of the piercings was blasted, capacities A Al communicating with one another almost invariably with satisfactory effect. by a conduit B. A number of pipes c c c lead into the midst of the melted metal contained in the chambers, and in the conduit jets of air or oxygen, and if necessary simultaneously mixed jets of air and combustible gases. Orifices D D1 are formed at the top of each of the chambers to permit the escape of the gases, which can be closed alternately, and passages E El at the upper part of each of the two capacities A and Al leading air under pressure regulated by cocks permit the We can scarcely have too many experiments as production of a pressure upon the melted mass to the utilization of sewage, always provided, of sometimes on one side and sometimes on the course, that they are made with judgment; and other, which forces it to pass through the conduit we are glad to notice that the Local Board of Tot- B uniting them into one or the other of the catenham has taken decided action in the matter of pacities alternately. This alternate backward and utilisation of the sewage of that locality. They forward movement thus causes a regular mechanihave determined, it appears, to have their sewage cl stirring, in which the movement imparted to discharged upon the Walthamstow marshes; and the mass as well as the differences in density of the If we now turn to the company's balance sheet we may reasonably expect from this wise decision different portions of the melted mass act concur- we find that each net ton produces about 4s. 8d., a plentiful crop of kitchen vegetables, mangold rently, in order to produce an intimate mixture which at 14d. per ton per mile makes the average wurzel, &c., instead of the malaria that now pro and to facilitate the chemical reactions produced distance traversed by each ton to be about 38 duces pestilence in the locality. The Local Board by the air, the oxygen, or the gases. The out- miles. Hence, as each ton of the total weight has taken the best means of filtering and deodo-flow is effected through an aperture F at the hauled runs 38 miles, and the entire length of rising the sewage, in arranging that it should be lowest part of the conduit B, uniting the two ca-line worked is 1,432 miles, it follows that there shed upon lands from which large vegetable and pacities. other crops may be reasonably expected, judging from what sewage irrigation has done in other It was a great thing in engineering for the operators from the two ends of a seven miles' tunnel to meet with precision. We can only hope that poor depressed France and rising Italy may be materially benefited by the completion of this great work, and that the often-spoken-of, longdesired "Brindisi route" for mails to the East will speedily become a regular and reliable means of communication. localities. THE "Civilian" states that the reorganisation of the pattern and sample posts is under the consideration of the postal authorities, nd that early in the ensuing year very extensive alterations in the existing state of affairs will be made greatly to the advantage of the public. The matt thus obtained is again melted in a cupola, then re-roasted in the same apparatus, and these operations are repeated as many times as found necessary. An addition of silica is also employed in convenient quantities, according to the nature of the mineral, in order to scorify the oxide of iron produced during the roasting process. Matts very rich in copper are thus obtained, and it is only necessary now to reduce and refine them. and North-Western Railway was 3ft. instead of IN our previous notice we stated a proposition to the effect that if the gauge of the London 4ft. 84in. some very important advantages would accrue to the shareholders. We have now to prove it, which we shall have no difficulty in doing by the returns of the railway itself, which will testify against it, notwithstanding the excellent management it has. We will first take the goods and mineral traffic on that line for one year, which amounts to about 15 millions of tons. We may fairly assume that of this quantity 5 million tons are minerals, chiefly coal, and we will deal with the remaining 10 million tons of general goods. It will be remembered that the proportion of non-paying to paying weight in goods traffic is about seven tons to one ton, which gives just 70 million tons of rolling weight employed to carry the 10 million tons of paying load. But suppose we reduce the dead weight and assume it to be only four tons to one, we even then get 40 millions of tons as the weight of the waggons used in carrying the paying load of 10 million tons of goods. The total gross weight hauled by the locomotives will then be 50 millions of tons, at an average speed of 25 miles an hour. The earnings for goods traffic on the North-Western line are 6s. 3d. per train mile, which, at an average rate of 1d. per ton per mile, would give about 50 tons as the paying weight, and 255 tons as the gross weight hauled per train mile. Dividing this 255 tons into the 50 millions gives 196,089 trains, which being divided by the 313 working days of the year gives 626 goods trains over all parts of this railway per day of 24 hours. must be on an average 37 goods trains distributed over the total length. By dividing this number into the total number of trains per day of 24 days we obtain an average of over 17 trains per day running on each mile of the line. We here see that, although at first sight 626 trains per day looks large, yet when divided over the entire line it is comparatively small. Before leaving this point we should observe that the 4 8d. per ton includes minerals, but as the n amount earned per train mile in the merchandise tons each, so that we have as a result that each Everything has, we believe, been done to render the service most efficient, and render the transmission of messages more speedy. Large extensions have been made, cables have been laid so as to include the Channel Islands in the system, a four-wire cable has been laid to Ireland, a large seven-wire one is now in course of manufacture for laying between Holyhead and Dublin, and will shortly be submerged. In fact, everything has been done to improve the service; in the electrical department Wheatstone's automatic instruments have been extensively introduced for the more rapid transmission of messages. India. The early part of the year saw the completion of the cables from Bombay to Aden and Suez; subsequently Malta was united with Gibraltar, Lisbon, and Falmouth by means of another cable, the through communication being maintained by the connecting link between Malta and Alexandria. This cable, however, was not found sufficient, and a duplicate cable has lately been and mineral traffic may be taken as averaging nterest in connection with our Indian railways, must be considered as an unqualified success, nearly the same the argument is in no way viti-and Mr. Fowler, who has been commissioned with the business has proved remunerative. ated. In the foregoing conclusion we are able to see other engineers by the Council of India to inveshow it would affect the question if the gauge of tigate and report upon the matter, emphatically the line was 3ft. instead of 4ft. 84in. In the first recommends a 3ft. Gin. gauge for the contemplated place, the same speed could be maintained, or extension lines, which present an aggregate of even a greater spoed reached, up to 35 or 40 many thousands of miles. It is urged by some that miles an hour. We here refer to speed because this will involve an evil in the shape of break with we are dealing with goods trains only; with the present 5ft. 6in. Indian gauge. But better this passenger trains speed tolls in favour of the than no line at all, and in many instances, if a 4ft. 8in. gauge. Our purpose is to show what narrow gauge line is not made, there is no alternacan be effected on a 3ft. gauge up to 40 miles antive but to go without railway accommodation hour, which speed can only be obtained on this altogether. We are aware that Mr. Hawkshaw and gauge by the use of double bogie engines on the Mr. Bidder have both reported to the directors of Fairlie system, with the principles of which our the Indian lines with which they are connected readers are well acquainted through our columns, against a narrow gauge. But their arguments are During the past year we have witnessed some Having, then, an equality of speeds let us next weak in the extreme, and are based upon preju-important submarine extensions, particulars of turn to the results of carrying on the 3ft. gauge. dices awakened by the proposed departure from which have already been laid before our readers. We have taken the proportions of non-paying to the routine of their ordinary Indian railway prae- The principal of these is the completion of the long paying load as four to one on the 4ft. 8in. gauge, tice. But in the end, all these and many other submarine cable route uniting England and although they are really much higher. The prejudices will be overcome, as they were five-andwaggons on this gauge weigh on the average 4 twenty years since when the battle of the gauges was so fiercely fought, and Mr. Fairlie will evenwaggon carries 1 ton for every mile it runs. The tually rank amongst our engineers as the pioneer waggons for a 3ft. gauge weigh 1 ton, and have a in a radical and salutary change in our system of maximum carrying capacity of 3 tons. Assuming railway construction. In proof of the onward that the same number of waggons and trains were practical advance of the question, we have only to run on the narrow gauge as on the broad it follows ask any of our readers who may be in Manchester that the average 1 ton of merchandise now carried to pay a visit to tho works of Mossrs. Sharp, would easily be taken in a waggon weighing but Stewart, and Co. There they will find no less 1 ton instead of 4 tons. Hence we should have a than twenty-one locomotives are now being congross load of 20 millions of tons passing over the structed on Mr. Fairlie's system. Seventeen of line in one year as against 50 millions, whilst in these engines are for some of the Russian lines to both cases the amount of paying weight carried which we referred in our recent articles upon the would be the same. Or, to put it in another form, Russian railway system. The remaining four are the small waggons which are capable of carrying for the Oscarsham Railway of Sweden. The engines three times the weight of goods now actually-five in number-for the Imperial Livsey Railcarried in a 4-ton waggon would only have to way are about to be shipped for their destination, carry one-third of that quantity, and would produce if they have not indeed already been sent off the same paying load as the heavier waggons. In- We thus see that the question of narrow gauge stead, therefore, of 50 million tons travelling over is making substantial progress in many parts of the line there would only be 20 millions, and as the world, and we cannot afford to overlook its the haulage cost is exactly the same whether a merits in some quarters at home. paying or non-paying load be hauled it follows that this expense would be reducedto 2-5ths of what it now is. But besides this saving there is the additional economy of a reduced cost in the maintenance of the permanent way, which at the best is ALTHOUGH it may be said of many things that business has beon dull and enterprise wantalways a fearfully heavy item on our present rail-ing, yet if we turn to telegraphy, it will be seen ways. There would be the friction and weight of at once that those observations must be incorrect only 20 millions of tons instead of 50 millions. Supposing the same number of trains to be run per day the weight of each would be reduced from 255 tons to 102 tons. On the other hand, if the same gross weight of train was employed the number of trains per day would be reduced from 626 to 250. ELECTRICITY AND TELEGRAPHY. as regards the telegraphic work of the past year. laid. The further extensions eastward are in a fair way towards completion; the cable from Batavia to Singapore and Penang has been laid, and the cable to Madras is in process of submersion. The Hong Kong and Shanghai cable is all at its destination, but not yet submerged; the cables from Singapore to Hong Kong and from Shanghai have been manufactured, and are now ready for shipping, whilst the remainder of the Australian cable is in course of manufacture. In all probability, therefore, in the course of next year we shall witness the completion of these extensions. Whilst on the subject of Eastern extension we must not omit to give a passing notice to the overland system of telegraph communication which was successfully opened for public traffic in January last. The system consists of a two-wire over and telegraph through Europe, Russian Asia, and Persia, to Teheran, where, joining with our India Government lines, the traffic is carried expeditiously to every part of India. It has now worked for many months with great success and without any material interruption, with the exception of a break in the Black Sea cable. The submarino route, however, has not been more fortunate, for they experienced some delay through the breaking of the Red Sea cable, and a portion of the line is now out of repair from a break near Lisbon, in the Gibraltar-Lisbon section. The Atlantic cables have been singularly unfor tunate during the past year. The American section of the French-Atlantic has been broken, and the 1866 has been broken twice, whilst the 1865 has been broken once. These two cables are now out of work. The whole traffic therefore passes through the French-Atlantic cable, and this has been found so great as to necessitate an increase in the tariff. It is to be hoped, however, that the other cables will be soon again in working order. Should it be found that there was sufficient merchandise to load the small waggons in such a Although the principal work connected with way as to require the same number and weight of the transfer of the telegraphs to the Post Office trains that are now worked the result would be was accomplished in 1863, yet the actual transfer that without in the least increasing the cost of itself inust date from the past year, a change which haulage or of the permanent way expenses the 3ft. will always make the year 1870 one of the most gauge would carry a paying load of 25 millions of noteworthy in telegraphy-the sudden change tons as against the 10 millions now carried. We from the old system into the new. The proposed have already referred to the Fairlie engine as transfer has invariably met with full support in being perfectly capable of hauling large train our columns. And the successful manner in loads on a 3ft. gauge at the same speeds as those which the business is now conducted is sufficient at which such loads are now taken on the 4ft. Sin. proof of the correctness of our views. It must be Turning to the west we find that in a hurricane gauge. We have, however, here to observe further acknowledge l, however, that the early days of the the Key West and Florida cable had parted, but was that it will do this on a light railway with rails that transfer were anything but palmy. General dissa- shortly after repaired. The Cuba cable has been shall not be required to exceed 50lb. to the yard, tisfaction seemed the order of the day, and the Post laid from Batabano to Santiago di Cuba, and also a and that shall be fairly worn out instead of being Office were condemned on the spot. People, how-cable from Santiago to Morant Bay, Jamaica, and crushed and ground out as the Silb. rails are ever, seemed to utterly ignore the peculiarities of one to St. Thomas. An attempt was made to lay under the present system. We thus see what an the case. The weather was exceptional, causing the cable from Panama to Jamaica, but an accident important saving could be effected on the London numerous interruptions. The traffic became sud-happened in paying out and the end was lost in and North-Western line if its gauge was Bit. in- 'denly great, and the facilities apparently in the op-900 fathoms water. The remainder of the cables stead of 4ft. >¡in., and this without any change of posite direction. No wonder there was delay; but it, for the West Indies are out there, and in course of management. This saving divided between the may be safely stated that if the transfer had been submersion, and early in the year in all probpublic and the shareholders would largely reduce delayed a month, that month would have been as the tariffs to the one whilst it would as largely fruitful in interruptions and delays in the hands increase the dividends to the other. We have of the various telegraph companies, as it became here some very startling results, but they are as in the hands of the Post Office. But then the difabsolute as they are startling, and they commend ference would have shown itself. The public seem themselves to the consideration of those who have to feel a great delight in pitching into a Government the carrying out of our future railways. The department, while they do not trouble themselves question has already come home in many quarters about a company. The great delay was princi-Russia, Norway, North and South America, pally due to the breaking down of so many lines Of those in progress, the Holyhead and Dublin, Sweden, and other countries having started with at the time of a greatly increased traffic. This and Australian are about the only ones, but as a railways on the narrow gauge system, which has was caused by the deteriorated condition of many sign of the enormous amount of work done in the been so perfectly worked out by Mr. Fairlie. of the telegraph lines, several of the companies course of the year it will surprise many to learn And we rejoice to see that his increasing endea- carefully refraining from spending more money that during the past year upwards of 14,000 knots vours to inculcate the facts we have embodied in than they could help so long as the Government of submarine cables have been manufactured, and the preceding remarks are at length bringing purchase was talked about. Matters now are very it is in this special branch of telegraphy that the forth fruit. Not that much has been done yet, different, the defective lines have been renewed, greatest progress is visible. but what has been done has proved so successful new extensions made in every direction, and the that it is paving the way to great issues in the service is now conducted in the most efficient future for the new narrow gauge. manner, and from the largely increased traffic from the introduction of a universal shilling rate, which The question of gauge is awakening the greatest ability the majority of the West India Islands will be telegraphically connected. The cable for joining the Isthmus of Panama with Peru is now completed, and will be submerged next year. Of the other cables that have been laid, there are the Marseilles, Bona, and Malta, the Channel Islands Cable, Beachy Head to Havre, and Portpatrick and Donaghadu. Several submarine telegraph companies made their appearance during the past year, some of which quietly disappeared. The Land and Sea Construction Company came out early in the year, |