still, within the limits of a single house, e.g., of the imperial | palace, and probably of other princely establishments, which counted their hundreds or thousands of dependants. Each class of slaves engaged in different domestic occupations had their own clubs. Thus the chef de cuisine (magister coquorum) of Augustus bequeathed a sum of money to the collegium, or club, of cooks, in his imperial majesty's house hold, and there is evidence that there were five or six other clubs in the palace at the same time. We do not know how large each club may have been; an old inscription tells us of forty seats reserved for a particular club in the amphitheatre at Nimes, but these belonged probably to the officers of the club, not to the ordinary members indis criminately. Sometimes the number of members was limited, either by the original constitution of the body, or by conditions subsequently imposed by benefactors who did not wish their donations to be frittered away and rendered useless by too minute subdivisions. As to the internal organization of the clubs, the general laws and principles which governed their constitution, both in Athens and in Rome, they were moulded, as was only natural, very much after the pattern of the civil institutions of the country. They were republican therefore in spirit, the administration of affairs being wholly in the hands of the members themselves, all of whom had equal rights; their watchful control was incessant, and their authority absolute; their officers were elected by universal suffrage, sometimes by acclamation; they were called by the same names as were borne by the magistrates of the state, apxovres, quæstores, magistri quinquennales, curatores, &c.; they were elected annually, and on entering into office they took an oath that they would observe the constitution and laws of the corporation; and on retiring from office they gave an account of their stewardship to the assembled members, who exercised a right of judgment over them, This judgment seems to have been almost uniformly favourable; a commendatory decree was voted almost as much a matter of course as a vote of thanks to the chairman of our own public meetings. In Greece this vote was accompanied by the offering of a crown of leaves, of olive, ivy, or poplar, according to the supposed choice of the god or goddess to whom the club was dedicated. In the East, e.g., Bithynia, we find crowns of ribands and flowers; in Rhodes, Delos, and the adjacent islands, it was not uncommonly of gold,-of very little intrinsic worth, however, and provided by special contributions at each monthly meeting. But the most valued part of the reward to these retiring officers (in Greece) seems to have been the proclamation of the honour obtained, which proclamation took place either after the ceremonies of the chief annual festival, or sometimes on every occasion of meeting. It was also engraved on a column which was set up in some conspicuous spot in or near their place of meeting. When any special services seemed to call for special recognition, the title of benefactor or benefactress was awarded, and this, too, was of course added to the inscription. A still higher and rarer honour was to offer the retiring officer a statue or portrait of himself, either full length or half figure only or sometimes both together, and even more than one of each. But only once among Greek inscriptions, belonging to these clubs do we find any mention of a salary awarded to the secretary, in consideration of the zeal and justice with which he had attended to the general interests of the community, the exactness with which he had rendered his own reports and accounts, as well as audited those of others who from time to time had been specially deputed to do anything for the club, and his constant devotion to the interests of all the members both collectively and individually Even in this instance, however, the zealous and disinterested secretary or treasurer declined the proffered salary, where

upon the club voted him a golden crown, which again he gave up for the decoration of the temple in which they mət. And this, indeed, was the usual fate of these complimentary offerings. The officers fulfilled the duties of their post gratuitously, and often at great expense to themselves, just as the civil magistrates were obliged to do; and it seems to have been pretty generally understood, that any extraordinary compliments, such as the offer of a statue or portrait, should, if accepted, be carried out at the expense, not of the donor, but of the receiver. In Rome, also, whenever an inscription states that the members of a collegium decree that a statue shall be erected in honour of some patron or benefactor, it is generally added that he undertook to pay for the statue himself (honore contentus, impensam remisit). Besides the acting officials of these clubs, there were also certain honorary patrous, whose connection with them was probably much the same as that of most patrons of benevolent societies in our own day. It was a compliment to invite them to become patrons, and they were expected to contribute to the funds in return. It only remains that we should say a few words about the merely social clubs of pagan times,-those clubs which had no other boud of union, either commercial, political, or religious, but which aimed only at the amusement or private advantage of their members. There was nothing in the functions of these clubs to obtain for them a place in the page of history. The evidence, therefore, of their existence and constitution is but scanty. Monumental inscriptions, however, tell us of clubs of Roman citizens in some of the cities of Spain, of a club of strangers from Asia resident in Malaga, of Phoenician residents at Pozzuoli, and of other strangers elsewhere. These all were probably devised as remedies against that sense of ennui and isolation which is apt to come over a number of foreigners residing at a distance from their native country. Something of the same kind of feeling may have led to the toleration of a club consisting of old soldiers who had been in the armies of Augustus; these were allowed to meet and fight their battles over again, spite of the legal prohibition of military clubs. Another military club of a different kind existed among the officers of a regiment engaged in foreign service in Africa. Its existence can have been no secret, for its rules were engraved on pillars which were.set up near the headquarters of the general, where they have lately been found in the ruins of the camp. The contribu. tion of each member on admission scarcely fell short of £25, and two-thirds of this sum were to be paid to his heir or representative on the occasion of his death, or ho might himself recover this proportion of his original subscription on retirement from military service. The peculiarity, however, of this aristocratic collegium was this, that it provided that a portion of the funds might also be spent for other useful purposes, e.g., for foreign travelling. It is to be presumed that a member who had availed himself of this privilege thereby forfeited all claim to be buried at the expense of his club.

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Clubs were by no means the exclusive privilege of the male sex in ancient days. Women also were united in similar associations. Their religious sodalities; indeed, were not generally edifying; but they combined together also for social and political purposes. The most remarkable of these was the great assembly of matrons, called at one time, in a mock-heroic way, "the minor senate." This ladies' club received its title from imperial authority, which also legislated as to the needful qualifications of its members, the times of its meeting, and the subjects of its debates. These concerned the gravest questions of etiquette, such as what dress ladies should wear according to their social rank; who was to take precedence one of another on public occasions of state, in processions, or other

ceremonies; who might ride in a carriage drawn by horses; who must be content to sit behind mules; whose sedan-chair might have fittings of ivory, whose of silver, &c. Not all ladies could attain to a seat in this little senate, which dealt with such delicate questions of etiquette; but we find them forming other clubs of their own which occasionally meddled with questions of municipal, if not of general, interest. They deliberated on the rewards to be given to this or that magistrate, and voted funds for monuments and statues in honour of those who had earned their approbation. The names of women are not unfrequently set down as patronesses of certain craft-gilds, of which they can hardly have been ordinary members; and in one instance at least in Africa, and in another in Majorca, inscriptions distinotly mention that certain ladies had filled all the official posts in a collegium. (J. 8. N.) Modern Clubs.-The word club, denoting the promotion of intercommunity and good fellowship, is not very old, and only became common in the time of the Tatler and Spec tutor; it claims a descent, however, from the Anglo-Saxon, being derived from cleofan, to divide, because the expenses are divided into shares. Thomas Occleve (temp. Henry IV.) mentions a club designated La Court. de Bone Compaignie of which he was a member. Aubrey (1659) speaks thus of the word: "We now use the word clubbe for a sodality in a taverne." He also mentions the ballot box, that potential instrument too often used in modern days for the indulgence of secret spleen: "Here we had (very formally) a ballotting box, and ballotted how things should be carried." Dr Johnson, according to Boswell, defines a club to be an "assembly of good fellows meeting under certain conditions." And to the same authority may be traced the words "clubable " and "unclubable."

The numerous London clubs which sprang into existence in the last and previous century had their place and origin almost entirely in the coffee-houses and taverns, then so much in vogue. Of these the earliest known was the Bread Street or Friday Street Club originated by Sir Walter Raleigh, and meeting at the Mermaid Tavern. Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Selden, Donne, and others were members of this club. Other clubs were subsequently formed, such as that meeting at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar, of which Ben Jonson was supposed to be the founder; and later on (in 1764) we find the Literary Club was established chiefly at the instance of Sir Joshua Reynolds, which soon acquired a renown no more thau proportionate to its merits-a renown maintained and brought down to the present day.

Addison, in the Spectator, has a paper on the clubs of his day (No. 9, vol. i. 1710). Of the description of club there sketched many exist at the present time, having no object but that of good fellowship and dining. In this category may be included the Royal Society Club, the history of which has been written by the late Admiral Wm. Henry Smyth, F.R.S., in the privately printed Sketch of the Rise and Progress of the Royal Society Club, published in 1860.

Of the more notable of the clubs of the past and the early part of the present century but few resembled the club of the Victorian era. Of those which survive may be mentioned White's, originally established in 1698. This club was formerly of a high Tory character, and though no longer political is still somewhat conservative and undoubtedly aristocratic. Brooks's club, similar to White's in the character of its members, and nearly coeval in date, has continued to maintain a political aspect, and is considered to be identified with Whig principles. Boodle's, of later date, has always been deemed the resort of country gentlemen, and especially of masters of fox-hounds. Arthur's, in some respects an offshoot of White's, was established fully

a century ago, and continues to this day a club of gentlemen associated for no special purpose, but united only by congeniality of tastes and ideas

The number of regularly established clubs in London is upwards of fifty, divided into political, literary and scientifie, university, naval and military, and general clubs. Of the political clubs the principal are the Carlton, the Conservative, the Junior Carlton, and the St Stephen's, the Reform, and the Devonshire (a kind of junior Reform club), the conditions of admission into which are of a political nature. Of the literary and scientific, the Athenæum was "instituted for the association of individuals known for their scientific or literary attainments, artists of eminence in any class of the fine arts, and noblemen and gentlemou distinguished as liberal patrons of science, literaturé, or the arts," and has long enjoyed a high reputation, rendering admission to its ranks both tedious as regards the length of time a candidate has to wait before being put up for ballot, and difficult when he is subjected to that crucial test. Of university clubs the United University is the oldest, the others being the Oxford and Cambridge, the New University, and others, the qualification for membership of which would be that of connection with the chief universities. The naval and military clubs include the United Service, the Junior United Service, the Army and Navy, with numerous others intended for military and naval officers, and in some instances for officers of militia. The general clubs include the Travellers, to be deemed eligible for which a candidate must have "travelled out of the British Islands to a distance of at least 500 miles from London in a direct line" (not a very onerous condition in the present day, but one of some weight in 1815 when the club was founded), and the Oriental and East India United Service clubs, intended more especially for members of Her Majesty's Indian services both civil and military. Besides these there are numerous clubs of a special character, such as the Windham, whose object is stated to be "to secure a convenient and agreeable place of meeting for a society of gentlemen all connected with each other by a common bond of literary or personal acquaintance;" the National club, consisting of "members who hold the doctrines and principles of the Reformed faith, as revealed in Holy Scripture, asserted at the Reformation, and generally embodied in the articles of the Church of England;" or the Garrick, which was instituted in 1831 for "the general patronage of the drama, for bringing together the supporters of the drama, and for the formation of a theatrical library with works on costume."

This list might be extended, but the general aims of the modern style of club are sufficiently indicated in this reference to the salient features of the clubs named.

The architectural elevations of the London club-houses are such as have lent dignity and character to the parts of London in which they are situated. Pall Mall notably is thus now a street of palaces. Nor should the contents of these handsome and convenient mansions pass unnoticed. The Athenæum has probably the choicest library of its kind, consisting mainly of books of reference, and including 45,000 volumes. The Garrick club has an exceedingly valuable collection of oil and water-colour paintings, chiefly. as might be expected, relating to dramatic episodes. The United Service, the Reform, the Oriental, and some other clubs have an assemblage of portraits of members who have won fame, or of paintings of celebrated battles and public events. The furniture and arrangements of the different apartments correspond to the exteriors, every convenience and luxury being placed at the disposal of the members.

The mode of election of members varies. In some clubs the committee alone have the power of choosing new members. In others the election is by ballot of the whole

club, one black ball in ten ordinarily excluding. In the Athenæum, whilst the principle of election by ballot of the whole club obtains, the duty is also cast upon the committee of annually selecting nine members who are to be "of distinguished eminence in science, literature, or the arts, or for public services," and the rule makes stringent provision for the conduct of these elections. On the committee of the same, club is likewise conferred power to elect without ballot princes of the blood royal, Cabinet ministers, bishops, speaker of the House of Commons, judges, &c.

The general concerns of clubs are managed by committees constituted of the trustees, who are usually permanent members thereof, and of ordinarily twenty-four other members, chosen by the club at large, one-third of whom go out of office annually. These committees have plenary powers to deal with the affairs of the club committed to their charge, assembling weekly to transact current business and audit the accounts. Once a year a meeting of the whole club is held, before which a report is laid, and any action taken thereupon which may be necessary.

The entrance fee varies from £40 at the United Service and Army and Navy clubs to 20 guineas at the Carlton club. The annual subscription in like manner ranges from 10 guineas in the Carlton, Reform, and several others, to 7 guineas in the United Service club. The largest income derived from these and all other sources may be stated to be that of the Army and Navy club, which in the year 1875 amounted to £30,813, of which £19,383 was raised by entrance fees and subscriptions alone. The expenditure is, however, most commonly of nearly equal amount, and of few of the clubs can it be said that they are entirely free from debt. The number of members included in a London club varies from 2200 in the Army and Navy to 475 in the St James's club.

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Numerous provincial clubs are established throughout the country. In both Edinburgh and Dublin are clubs fully coming up to the metropolitan societies. Nor is this great public convenience lacking in the cities and towns of Europe, the United States, and the British colonies.

Of a different nature and with widely different objects are the learned. bodies designated publishing clubs, of which the Abbotsford, the Bannatyne, the Roxburghe, and others are examples. These societies devoted themselves solely to the editing of unpublished MSS., or the reprint of rare and valuable works. (J. C. W.)

Arnold (Walter), Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Beef. steaks, 1871; Aubrey (John), Letters of Eminent Persons, 2 vols.; Marsh (C.), Clubs of London, with Anecdotes of their Members, Sketches of Character and Conversation, 1832, 2 vols.; Notes and Queries, 3d series, vols. 1, 9, 10; Pyne (W. H.), Wine and Walnuts, 1823, 2 vols.; Smyth (Admiral), Sketch of the Use and Progress of the Royal Society Club, 1860; Timbs (John), Club Life of London, with Anecdotes of Clubs, Coffee-Houses and Taverns, 1866, 2 vols., and History of Clubs and Club Life, 1872; Walker (Th.), The Original, fifth edition, by W. A. Guy, 1875; The Secret History of Clubs of all Descriptions [by Ned Ward], 1709; Complete and Humourous Account of all the Remarkable Clubs and Societies in the Cities of London and Westminster [by Ned Ward], seventh edition, 1756; The London Clubs: their Anecdotes, History, Private Rules, and Regulations, 1853, 12mo: Hume (Rev. A.), Learned Societies and Printing Clubs, 1847.

CLUB-FOOT (Talipes). The pathology and treatment of the various deformities of the foot, which are included under the above general title, come strictly under orthopedic surgery. Several forms of club-foot have been recognized by surgeons There are four primary forms :(1) Talipes equinus, in which the heel does not touch the ground, the child resting on the toes; (2) Talipes varus, in which the foot is turned inwards and shortened, the inner edge of the foot raised, the outer edge of the foot only touching the ground; (3) Talipes calcaneus, a rare

form, in which the heel only touches the ground, the toes being raised; (4) Talipes valgus, in which the foot is turned outwards. The third and fourth varieties are so rare that they are of no practical interest, and need not be further alluded to. It is possible to confound true talipes valgus with flat-foot, a deformity which is the result of undue stretching, from weakness, of the fascial and ligamentous structures which maintain the arched form of the foot. flat-foot the arch is lost, the patient is splay or flat-footed, and as a secondary deformity the foot is turned outwards, resembling and often confounded with true talipes valgus.

In

In

The two common primary forms of club-foot are talipes equinus and talipes varus. These two varieties are frequently combined; the deformity is then termed talipes equino-varus. A shortening or contraction of one group, or of allied groups, of muscles is always to be observed; as, for instance, in talipes equinus, to which the muscles of the calf are con tracted, or in talipes varus, in which the group of muscles which turn the foot inwards are contracted, or in talipes equino-varus, in which both sets are at fault. This contraction is due either to excessive primary irritation of the muscular group implicated, or is secondary to and the result of paralysis of an opposing group of muscles. certain cases the paralysis affects more or less all the muscles of the limb; the result of this is a deformity in the direction of the most powerful group. The primary cause of these diseased conditions is some irritation of the cerebrospinal central nervous system, either occurring before birth, and termed congenital, or appearing after birth, generally during the period of first dentition, and termed non-congenital. As a rule well-marked cases are congenital. Such deformities are frequently hereditary. Both feet may or may not be affected. Recognition of club-foot is of importance, because if not treated early a change takes place in the shape of the bones of the foot, which renders treatment much more difficult, and in some neglected cases it is impossible to restore the foot to its normal shape.

It is to Stromeyer in Germany (1837), and to Little and Adams in England, that we owe a true understanding of the pathology and treatment of these affections.

The following broad principles, which govern the treat. ment, are now universally understood and adopted by surgeons:-(1) A subcutaneous division, by the operation of tenotomy, of the contracted tendons; and (2) A stretching of the newly-formed embryonic tissue which is deposited between the cut extremities of the tendons in the inter space, the result of their retraction after division. This is managed by means of a mechanical appliance termed a club-foot boot. Various forms of boot have been used by surgeons; in all the essential feature is that the foot is fixed to the boot by sticking-plaster or by straps, and the stretching is gradually accomplished by the elasticity of Indian-rubber bands, or by steel springs, or by screws. this way the foot gradually assumes a normal appearance.

In

As a general rule, after it is evident that the deformity is a persistent one, the earlier the operation is performed the better. Only in exceptional cases should interference be delayed beyond the third or fourth month of life. If a change takes place in the bones, or if the child is allowed to walk before treatment of the deformity, the cure is rendered more difficult and more tedious. In many cases when the child is young the cutting operation will not be necessary; the foot can be restored to its normal position by mechanical appliances alone.

Various rules have been laid down for the proper performance of tenotomy. The simple rule to begin with the most tense tendon, and to divide it where it is most tense, is of universal application: In talipes equinus the tendo achillis, in talipes varus the tibialis posticus and tibialis anticus require division. In the common form.

talipes equino-varus, both groups must be operated on. Very frequently the plantar fascia is shortened and has also to be divided. After the operation, which is greatly facilitated by the administration of chloroform, the foot is kept at rest with a bandage for three or four days until the small punctures are healed. The boot is then carefully applied, and gradually the foot is restored to its normal shape without causing pain, which interferes with the object in view, namely, a moulding (by stretching) of the newly-formed tissue between .the divided ends of the tendons If there is distinct paralysis the appropriate remedies-friction, passive exercise, and the electric battery -may be indicated. The boot should be worn for some time after the foot has regained its normal appearance, because there is always a tendency for a considerable period to the return of the deformity. (J. C.) CLUNY, or CLUGNI, a town of France, in the department of Saône-et-Loire, about twelve miles by rail north-west of Macon, on the left bank of the Grône, a tributary of the Saône, crossed there by two bridges. It is a place of upwards of 4000 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable agricultural trade, and the manufacture of pottery, paper, and vinegar. The main interest in the town is due to its specimens of medieval architecture, which include, besides its celebrated abbey, the church of Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century; the church of Saint Marcel with a beautiful spire; the ruins of Saint Mayeul; portions of the ancient fortifications; and a number of picturesque houses belonging to various periods from the 12th century downwards, classed among the historic monuments of France. A mere village at the time when William the Pious and Bernon, abbot of Gigny and Baume, laid the foundations of what was destined to be one of the principal monasteries of Europe, it gradually increased with the development of the religious fraternity, and was raised to the rank of a town. Before the erection of St Peter's at Rome, the abbey church, which was consecrated by Innocent II., was recognized as the largest building of its kind in Europe, its length being no less than 656 feet and its breadth 130. During the wars of the 16th century the abbatial buildings were greatly damaged; and in the Revolution of 1789 a great part of them were completely demolished. Restorations have since been effected at various times, and different portions of the enormous pile are appropriated to civic purposes. The abbot's palace contains a museum and a library; the cloisters are occupied by a school; and the site of the abbey church affords room for a Government stud. The 12th century was the period at which the monks of Cluny reached the height of their prosperity; and about that time no fewer than 2000 religious establishments throughout Europe acknowledged allegiance. Shortly after they began to decline from the ancient rigidity of their rule; and their influence gave way before the rising power of the Cistercians. Among the great men whom they have produced are Gregory VII., Urban II., and Pascal II. The town residence erected in Paris by the abbots of Cluny about the end of the 15th century is still extant, and, under the name of Hôtel de Cluny, is occupied by the Sommerard archæological collection; but the Collégé de Cluny, which was founded in 1269 by Ives de Vergy, has disappeared.

CLUSIUM. See CHIUSI.

CLUVER, PHILIP (1580-1623), a German geographer still regarded as an authority, was born at Danzig in 1580. After travelling in Poland and Germany, he commenced the study of law at Leyden; but he soon turned his attention to geography, which was then taught there by Joseph Scaliger. Displeased with his desertion of the law, his father refused to support him; and he was forced to enter the army, with which he served for two years in

Bohemia and Hungary. After leaving the army he undertook to get printed in Holland an apology for Baron Popel, who had been imprisoned by the emperor; and in consequence he was himself thrown into prison. On his release he visited England, where he married, and became acquainted with Dr Holland and Dr Prideaux. After spending some time in Scotland and France, he returned to Holland; and in 1611 he commenced to publish his works, being, after 1616, supported by a pension from the Academy of Leyden. His principal works are-Germania Antiqua (1616), Siciliæ Antiquæ libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua (1619), Italia Antiqua (1624), Introductio in Universam Geographiam (1629).

CLYDE, the most important river of Scotland, and the third in point of magnitude, has its origin from numerous small streams rising at a height of about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, in the mountains which separate Lanarkshire from the counties of Peebles and Dumfries. It flows first in a northerly direction, with a slight inclination eastward as far as Biggar, where, in time of floods, a junction is sometimes established with the system of the Tweed by means of the Biggar Water. After uniting with the Douglas near Harperfield, it takes a north-west course, passing Lanark, Hamilton, and Glasgow, and merges in the Firth of Clyde below Dumbarton. From its source to Dumbarton it is about 73 miles in length, the direct district being about 52. Its principal tributaries are the Douglas, the Nethan, the Avon, and the Cart from the left, and the Medwyn, the Mouse, the Calder, the Kelvin, and the Leven from the right. Of the celebrated Falls of Clyde, three are above and one below Lanark; the uppermost is Bonnington Linn, the height of which is about 30 feet; the second is Corra Linn, where the water dashes over the rock in three distinct leaps, and resumes its course at a level 84 feet lower. Dundaff Linn is a small fall of 10 feet; and at Stonebyres there are three successive falls, together measuring 76 feet in height. At high water the Clyde is navigable to Glasgow for the largest class of merchant vessels. See GLASGOW.

CLYDE, LORD (1792-1863), better known as SIR COLIN CAMPBELL, was born at Glasgow on the 16th of October 1792. He received his education at the high school of that city, and when only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigncy in the 9th foot, through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle. The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present at the battle of Coruna. He shared in all the fighting of the next Peninsular campaign, and was severely wounded while leading a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again wounded at the passage of the Bidoassa, and compelled to return to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded with the rank of captain and lieutenant, without purchase. Campbell held a command in the American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by purchase. In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service in the Chinese war of 1842. Colonel Campbell was next employed in the Sikh war of 1848-49, under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla, where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Goojerat, his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the British arms; and his "steady coolness and military precision were highly praised in official despatches. He was created a K.C.B. in 1849, and specially namel in the thanks of Parliament.

After rendering important services in India, Sir Colin Campbell returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean war broke out, and he accepted the command of the Highland brigade, which formed the left wing of the duke of Cambridge's division. The success of the British at the Alma was mainly due to his intrepidity; and with his "thin red line" of Highlanders he repulsed the Russian attack on Balaklava. At the close of the war Sir Colin was promoted to be. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, and elected honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, however, had as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis came, his true worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny called for a general of tried experience; and on July 11, 1857, the command was offered to him by Lord Palmerston. On being asked when he would be ready to set out, the veteran replied, "Within twenty-four hours." He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening, and reached Calcutta on August 13. The position was one of unusual difficulty, but his energy and resource did not fail, for a moment. Having formed an army as hastily as possible, he marched with 6000 men and 36 guns to the relief of Lucknow. The odds against him were great, and nothing save consummate dexterity of manoeuvring could have achieved success. When the British guns were silenced by the fire of the rebels, Sir Colin himself headed the final assault, carried the fort, and saved the besieged. He afterwards, by his skilful tactics, thoroughly defcated the enemy, and captured their strongholds, thus crushing the mutiny and preserving the British rule in India. For these services he was raised to the peerage in 1858, by the title of Lord Clyde; and returning to England in the next year he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. He enjoyed a pension of £2000 a year until his death, which occurred on the 14th of August 1863.

Lord Clyde possessed in abundant measure all the qualities which go to make a successful general. He combined the daring of the subaltern with the calm prudence of the veteran commander. The soldiers whom he led were devotedly attached to him; and his courteous demeanour and manly independence of character won him unvarying respect. Though adequate recognition of his merits came slowly, he never allowed any feeling of pique to interfere with duty; and he deserves to be regarded as one of the most distinguished generals that Britain has produced.

CLYTÆMNESTRA, the daughter of Tyndareus and Leda, and wife of Agamemnon. See AGAMEMNON.

CNIDUS, now TEKIR, an ancient city of Caria, in Asia linor, situated at the extremity of the long peninsula that forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, or Gulf of Cos. It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion, or Cape Krio, which anciently com municated with the continent by a causeway and bridge, and is now permanently connected by a narrow sandy isth: mus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger, or southern, now known as port Frenno, was further enclosed by two strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire. The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both insular and continental, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the north-east corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is largely due to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by Mr C. T. Newton in 1857-8. The agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Venus, and a great number

of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. In a templeenclosure Mr Newton discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which now adorns the British Museum'; and about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, 10 feet in length and 6 in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory of Conon over the Lacedæmonians in 394 B.C. (see ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii. p. 412). Among the minor antiquities obtained from the city itself, or the great necropolis to the east, perhaps the most interesting are the leaden xaradeopot, or imprecationary tablets, found in the temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the appendix to the second volume of Newton's work. Cnidus was a city of high antiquity and probably of Lacedæmonian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus and Cos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Camirus, and Ialysus, it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour of Apollo, Poseidon, and the nymphs. The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, known as aμvýμoves, and presided over by a magistrate called an apeσrýp; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent & popular transformation. The situation of the city was favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara and founded the city of Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian war they were subject to Athens. The Romans easily obtained their allegiance, and rewarded them by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population; for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most remarkable of the Cnidians mentioned in history.

CNOSSUS, or GNOSSUS, the most important city of Crete, on the left bank of the Ceratus, a small stream which falls into the sea on the north side of the island. The city was situated at a distance of about 3 miles from the coast, and, according to the old traditions, was founded by Minos, the mythical king of Crete. The locality was associated with a number of the most interesting legends of Grecian.mythology, particularly with those which related to Jupiter, who was said to have been born, to have been married, and to have been buried in the vicinity. Cnossus is also assigned as the site of the fabled labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined, and a physical basis for the legend may perhaps have been found in the caverns and excavations of the district. As the city was originally peopled by Dorians, the manners, customs, and political institutions of its inhabitants were all Dorian. Along with Gortyna and Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy over the whole of Crete; and it always took a prominent part in the civil wars, which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the same fate, and became a Roman colony. Enesidemus, the sceptic philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnossus:

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