Let it be supposed that a girl had been seen by a deaf mute child to drop a cup of milk which she was carrying home. He would relate the incident in the following order of sign words. Saw-Igirl-walk-cup-milk-carry-home-drop. This mode of dictating is the only sure road to the acquisition of language by those who have nothing but the natural language of gesture and feature to assist them.

The value of the language of signs is well expressed by the principal of the Ohio Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, who says:—

"The use of good scaffolding must attend the erection of every building. As scaffolding in architecture so is the sign language in deaf mute education, and only tyros in architecture or education would dispense with either. The riper the experience the deeper the conviction comes of the necessity and usefulness of the sign language, and in its use we find the corner stone of all deaf mute institutions. The cultivation of it and its effective use is the only peculiar, although not the chief qualification of the teacher. He will teach written language by the sign, laying aside the latter as soon as the ready use of the former has been secured. It is not necessary to descant upon the beauty, the grace, or the power of the sign language. The mute has no other, and the teacher must use and improve it as best he may."

The first lesson in which the pupils are instructed on their entrance into school is the mode of visible communibation known as the finger or manual alphabet. There are two kinds of this,-the doubled-handed alphabet, where the letters are expressed by the dispositions of the fingers of both hands, and the single-handed, in which the letters are formed with the fingers of one hand. It is supposed that the former was derived from a finger-alphabet which appeared in a work by Dalgarno; and the latter is said to have been invented in Spain, and appears to have been published in a work by Bonet to which the Abbé de l'Epée was much indebted.

properly instructed converse with the utmost rapidity by this method; habit enables them to follow with the eye

K

W

The Single-handed Alphabet, as used in the American and Continental schools, and also in one or two English schools. motions which to others would be too rapid for observation. They readily catch at the meaning of a word or question before it is half spelt.

We

Articulation.--Another very important branch of the education of the deaf and dumb is that system by which deaf mutes are taught to speak and to understand the speech of others by merely watching the motion of the vocal organs. This method is by no means novel. as it has long been practised in some of the schools in England, and the earliest attempts to teach the deaf and dumb to speak appear to have been as. successful as those in modern times. learn from the Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History (quoted by the Abbé Carton in his Annual of the Deaf and Dumb and Blind) that a deaf man was taught to pronounce words and sentences by John, bishop of Hagulstadt (Hexham), in the year 685; and from that time we meet with only isolated cases, till the latter part of the 18th century, when Samuel Heinicke established a school where this system formed the basis of instruction,

It would at first sight appear scarcely credible that a person, without the guidance of the sense of hearing, would be able, merely by watching the position and actions of the organs of the voice, to utter articulate sounds, with any tolerable perfection. Experience, however, has shown that this accomplishment, though laborious and tedious of acquisition, is not attended with extreme difficulty. Great patience, perseverance, and kindness are qualifications necessary on the part of the teacher to ensure success in ordinary cases, and the degree of success will greatly depend upon the number of children among whom the teacher has to divide his attention. A wide difference must ever be perceptible between the speech of the deaf and those who hear. This artificial speech is laborious and constrained. It frequently conveys the idea of pain as well as effort, and as it cannot be regulated by the ear of the speaker, it is often too loud, and generally monotonous, harsh, aud discordant. It is often from this cause scarcely intelligible except to those who are accustomed to its tones. The

cases.

system of articulation and lip reading prevails in the German and other Continental schools, where this art has been cultivated with greater success than in England, which must be attributed to the adaptability of the German language to this peculiar mode of acquiring speech; the decision of this question, as far as it concerns any particular individual, must, however, depend in a great measure on peculiar circumstances, such as condition in life and future destination, &c. Children congenitally deaf, of good capacity, with a well-toned voice, can make surpriz ing progress in the hands of private tutors; but the limited success which has attended this method of instruction with numbers has not induced teachers to introduce it generally into large institutions, but rather to restrict it to special Most of the German teachers consider that articulation is necessary for the acquisition of thought, and can be successfully taught to the majority of the deaf and dumb; but most teachers of experience in England hold quite the opposite opinion, and teach it only to the semimute and semi-deaf. This subject continues to be much disputed, and the question, whether or not it should form a part of the course of the education of the deaf and dumb, and, if so, to what extent, is still keenly discussed. The American institutions have sent over to Europe from time to time some of their most distinguished instructors to investigate the methods carried on in the English and Continental schools. They made most minute examinations of the different systems, and were somewhat disappointed to find that the German system so-called did not possess such advantages over theirs, or the French system, as they had been led to expect. Mr Gallaudet, in his report to the board of directors of the Columba Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, says :-"Nothing in my foreign investigations has led me to question the character of the foundation on which the system of instruction pursued in our American institutions is based. It is plainly evident, from what is seen in the articulating schools of Europe and from the candid opinions of the best instructors, that oral language cannot, in the fullest sense of the term, be mastered by a majority of deaf mutes." The following is the opinion of the Rev. George Day: "As a regular part of a system of public instruction, its introduction into our institutions, I am persuaded, would be a serious misfortune." Mr Hawkins (for many years a teacher in the London school), who may be said, in this connection, to represent the consensus of English authorities, says :-"Scarcely more than one in thirty attains anything approaching success.'

"

The experience of Dr Watson, for many years principal of the London Asylum, is decidedly in favour of its utility. In support of his opinion he states the following argument, which must doubtless be allowed to have some weight:

"The more numerous are the means of observation, the more per: fect will be the recollection, or, in other terms, the more frequent the recurrence of words and their corresponding ideas to the mind. Thus, persons who can hear, speak, read, and write retain a discourse much better, and have far greater facility in expressing themselves, than persons who possess only two of these faculties, that is, illiterate persons, who can hear and speak, but who cannot read or write. Now, as deaf and dumb persons educated without articulation can only have two of the means, viz., the third and the fourth, that is, the impressions made upon the eye by characters and the action of the hand in writing, can it be questioned that we render them an essential service by adding the actions of the organs of speech, a very powerful auxiliary, since by it words become, as it were, a part of ourselves, and more immediately affect us In learning te pronunciation of letters, a very important operation is going on in the mind of a deaf person, namely, the association and understanding of the figures of written or printed character with certain movements or actions of the organs of speech. The very habit of regarding the one as the representative of the other paves the way for considering combinations of those actions or characters, as the sign of things or ideas-that is, significant

words, written or articulate. We who hear consider words chiefly as sound; the deaf who have learned to speak consider them rather as actions proceeding from themselves. And this gives language to them a sort of tangible property, which is of vast importance both as respects its retention in the memory, and one of its most important uses, the excitation of ideas in their own minds. On this account the time, the labour, and attention, necessary to articulate speech by those who are dumb through want of hearing, would be well bestowed, even if their speech were not intelligible to others."

In America oral teaching is now receiving much attention. It has been introduced into several of the existing institutions, and two or three schools have been established in which the German system is exclusively carried out, and in order to facilitate the acquisition of articulate speech, the ingenious method called "Visible Speech," invented by Mr Melville Bell, has been introduced. In England, also, there are several ardent advocates of the oral system.

This

Time of School Attendance.-After the foregoing sketch and criticism of the different methods which have been adopted for the education of the deaf and dumb, it is natural to inquire what general end in their education is proposed by teachers, and what principal aims in conformity with that end should be regarded. Obviously the fundamental object should be to qualify the pupils to hold ready communication with persons who, having the faculties of hearing and speech, employ the current language of the country for the purposes of mutual intercourse. They must above all things be taught the use of ordinary language, both as an instrument for expressing their own thoughts and for understanding those of others. qualification, it is evident, is absolutely necessary to their becoming members of that community from which by nature they would have been excluded, and to which it is our chief aim to restore them.2 Teachers are not agreed as to the age at which the deaf and dumb should commence their education with the greatest benefit, nor yet as to the term required for school attendance. It is the opinion of some that infant schools for the deaf and dumb would prove of immense advantage in compensating for the extra length of time requisite to acquire anything like a perfect knowledge of the English language, but others are strongly opposed to these for social, physical, and intellectual reasons, socially, as it tends to alienate the children from their parents; physically, as being naturally of delicate constitutions they require the years of childhood to be invigorated, and so to be fitted to undergo the strain of a regular and systematic course of instruction; and intellectually, as it has been found by experience that children of an early age have not that power of compre hension or memory to enable them to advance with satisfaction. Doubtless, they would benefit somewhat by coming to a school for the deaf and dumb for a short time daily; but as the deaf-mute population is so scattered, very few would be able to avail themselves of such a privilege. The only available remedy would be their attendance at ordinary schools for a stated time daily, where they would be disciplined and taught the girls to sew, knit, and write, and the boys to write and draw. By this suggestion it is not meant to affirm the possibility of educating deaf mutes along with hearing children. The plan has been tried but has not been successful. The constant observation of the deaf mutes of the superiority of others over them tends to dishearten and depress them, and as they are at

1 Mr Bell has also invented an instrument called a Phonautograph, which he says has been found useful for educational purposes, as was demonstrated by a young deaf and dumb pupil from the Boston insti

tution.

"Most institutions experience some difficulty in securing and then retaining able and efficient teachers, as the sphere of labour in the profes sion is so circumscribed and the salaries offered are far from being an equivalent remuneration for the sacrifice of brighter prospects and the depressing influence of the work."

all times too apt to be discouraged by the consciousness of their own defect, it should be the teacher's duty cheerfully to stimulate and encourage them to advancement.1

An infant school was formed in connection with the Manchester Institution for the deaf and dumb some years ago, but from the report for 1876 it appears that there were only two children under the age of seven, out of a total of 149 pupils, in the two departments. Most of the institutions admit children from seven to nine years of age, and it is the opinion of teachers of experience that at that age it is most suitable to commence instruction. Still, before they are eligible for an institution of the deaf and dumb, much may and ought to be done by the parents for their improvement.

The first and primary aim of the teacher is to get at the minds of the pupils, and for this end it is of immense advantage that they should be brought up together, so that they may acquire and maintain the language of signs. The acquisition enables them to convey to one another much and varied information, which proves of great service in the hands of the teacher in the class-room; and further, through this intercommunion the influence of example operates with due'force in stimulating them to intellectual exertions. The length of time required at school for the education of the deaf and dumb must be determined by the capacities of the pupils, and perhaps even more by their position in life. Of course, they require a much longer time than hearing children to compensate for their deprivation. Still those who have to begin to earn their daily bread by the labour of their hands at about the age of fourteen (if of good capacity) leave the school with a store of varied and useful knowledge. They are able to understand directions given to them, to hold intercourse with others, to express their opinions on ordinary affairs-in short, they are raised from a wretched and forlorn condition to that of intelligent and moral beings, and as such their future progress will be proportional to their own diligence, and will be impeded by no obstacles except those which their own exertions are now competent to remove.

Occupations. Most of the deaf and dumb soon after leaving school are put to some trade. They will be found to be engaged in all kinds of employment except those to which hearing and speech are indispensable. The deprivation of hearing is no barrier to learning most trades, and the deaf and dumb acquire them with the same facility and show the same expertness as others. As a rule, they are very steady, and apply themselves with assiduity to their work; for while the attention of those who can hear is often distracted in the workshop, they steadily keep to their task, as they well know that talking implies for them cessation from labour. There is at times a little difficulty to get employers for them, as they require more attention

to be initiated into their trades.

The following extract from an interesting work on the deaf and dumb by the Rev. S. Smith enumerates many of the trades in which they are engaged :—

"Deaf and dumb soldiers and policemen are not existent; there is however a rifle volunteer, whose father being an old soldier drilled him well so that he is now able to join in general practice. Amongst the males, besides various labouring employments, the trades of shoemaking and tailoring predominate, but beyond these

In one school only, namely, Donaldson's Hospital in Edinburgh, are the deaf and dumb brought up together with hearing children, but even there it has never been thought practicable to instruct them in the same class-room. The benefit derived by the deaf and dumb from such a system is very slight in an educational point of view, but socially it is of great advantage, as it draws them out of that isolation to which they are naturally so prone, and fits them to hold free and ready intercourse with strangers in after life; and besides, the association largely tends to spread the mode of deaf-mute communication throughout the country, as the hearing children learn to communi. cate freely with them.

there is a diversity of occupation. We have bakers, blacksmiths, bookbinders, brassworkers, bricklayers, brickmakers, brushmakers, cabinetmakers, carpenters, carvers on wood and stone, gravers on wood and metals, French polishers, gardeners, gilders, cigar-makers, compositors, coopers, cork-cutters, cutlers, englass writers and stainers, harness makers, saddlers, hatters, japanners, jewellers, law writers, optical and philosophical printers both lithographic and letterpress, turners, typefounders, instrument makers, pattern designers, print and map colourers, watch-dial painters, wire drawers, &c. We also find artists-litho graphic, photographic, heraldic-and some in the highest branches both in oil and water colours; also a sculptor of great ability who memorial prize, who also once stood second for a gold medal, and produced a beautiful composition in competition for the Wellington who has most satisfactorily executed statuettes of Wellington, Peel, Raglan, Havelock, &c. There are, besides, two heraldic painters, who have studios of their own, and are amongst the best of their art in London, with others who are rising in great proficiency. Two of the artists in oil, although but young and at present students, have executed pictures which have been accepted by the British Insti tution, the Suffolk Academy, and in one instance by the Royal Academy. In more intellectual occupations we find several gentle. superior position in his office, it has been remarked to us by some men in the civil service, respecting one of whom, who has gained a whose duties bring them into contact with him, that notwithstanding his affliction they can do business better with him than any other clerk in the establishment. There is a young gentleman making himself noted as an entomologist; some are teachers of the deaf and dumb, occasionally even principals of institutions; and the highest instance we know of is a barrister, not a pleader of course, but who is eminent as a conveyancer. In the employment of females there is not so much variety; some are engaged in domestic work, others are artificial florists, bookfolders and sewers, brushdrawers, cigar makers, corset makers, dress and mantle makers, fringe and tassel makers, laundresses, muslin workers, milliners, sewing machinists, straw bonnet makers, tailoresses, &c. We also know one who is a compositor, another a lady's maid, and a third who is employed in a telegraph office."

From this it will be seen that to the educated deaf mute nearly all trades are open, and the reports from their mastera to the several institutions are generally most favourable.

The census returns for 1871 give the following table of occupations of deaf and dumb in England and Wales and Scotland :—

Institutions.-Most of the institutions for the deaf and

dumb in England have originated in the benevolent in

terest of a few individuals of the localities in which

they are established. They are supported by public anfor board and education. The principals are held re nual subscriptions, donations, legacies, and fees of pupils sponsible for the educational department and for internal management, while the affairs of the institutions are Trades are taught to the boys in some of the schools, while directed by committees selected from the subscribers. all the pupils have to do some industrial work, and the girls are taught household work, sewing, and knitting. The children are admitted either gratuitously or by payment of fees, varying in amount in the several institutions, some of which grant apprentice fees and otherwise assist the children on leaving school.

The London Asylum was the first public school in England for the gratuitous education of the indigent deaf and dumb. It was projected by the Rev. J. Townsend and Rev. H. Mason, rector of Bermondsey, London. On the 14th November 1792 the school was opened with four pupils

* Among those who passed the recent Cambridge Local Examinations with honours in classics and mathematics was a deaf-mute lad under 16 years of age, named Farrar.

AMERICA.

United States......

1870

16,150

38,558,000

1 In 2388

Nova Scotia.....

1871

441

387,800

] in 679

New Brunswick

1871

306

285,594

1 in 933

City of Halifax..

1871

27

1 in 1026 1 in 1649 1 in 1432

These figures afford an indication that causes are at work which are diminishing the extent of deaf-muteism in the country; such as direet sanitary improvements, general attention to the laws of health, and more skilful treatment of the diseases which result in deafress. Of the 11,518 deaf mutes in England and Wales in 1871 (including those described as dumb) 6262 are males and 5256 te females. In Scotland, out of the 2087 deaf mutes, 1133 are males and 954 females, of whom 1016 were ascertained to have been so from birth, while 1071 became so in after life from various caues. The number of deaf and dumb persons in Ireland is 5554, viz., in Leinster, 1818; Munster, 1590; Connaught, 882; and Ulster, 1764.

The instances of persons in the melancholy condition of being deaf and dumb and blind are 'more numerous than might be supposed; for the congenitally deaf are in a measure predisposed to the organic defect which results in blindness. No less than 111 persons were returned as deaf and dumb and blind; of these 20 were in special asylums and 26 in workhouses. In 1861 only 30 persons were described as blind and deaf and dumb.

As dumbness can only co-exist with deafness from birth or from early life, the number of deaf and dumb, unlike that of the blind, does not increase with age, but is highest immediately after the age when the epidemic diseases of children have been passed through. Talde II. shows concisely the locality, the date of establishment, and approximately the number of pupils in each of the institutions in Great Britain and Ireland.

DEAFNESS. See EAR.

DEAK, FRANZ (1803-1876), an Hungarian statesman, was born on October 17, 1803, at Kehida, in the comitat of Szalad. He sprang from an old noble family, of which he was the last descendant. Having studied law at the academy of Raab, he practised as an advocate in Szalad, and soon became a prominent figure at the meetings of the comitat. He represented Szalad in the Diet which met at Presburg in 1832 and lasted till 1836. By his earnestness and practical sagacity he made so deep an impression that he was in a short time recognized as leader of the opposition. The object of his policy was, on the one hand, to resist the encroachments of the central Government at Vienna on the rights of his country, and, on the other, to remove abusos which then made Hungary one of the most backward nations in Europe. He again sat for Szalad in the Dict of 1839-40, and by skilful management effected a temporary reconciliation between the Imperial Government and the Reform party, of which he was the head. He gave deep offence, however, by the vigour with which he denounced the cxemption of Hungarian nobles from taxation, as well as other injurious survivals of the Middle Ages; and when elected in 1843 he received such definite instructions from the constituency to vote in a reactionary sense that he declined to accept his seat. At a second election the Liberals exerted themselves so energetically that he was again appointed; but, on the ground that violence had been used in connection with his candidature, he once more refused to enter the Diet. For some years he lived as a private citizen; but he was everywhere regarded as the most influential Hungarian politician, and his party took A project for no important step without consulting him. a penal code which he drew up about this time was admitted in Germany, France, and England to be one of the most enlightened ever conceived. The excitement of 1843 caused the first symptoms of the disease of the heart of which he ultimately died; and during the rest of his life he always suffered more or less from ill health. On this account he could not enter the Diet of 1847; but next year, when revolutionary forces threatened to break up the empire, he was persuaded to take a seat vacated for him by one of the members for Szalad.

The emperor, alarmed by the dangers which surrounded him on every side, conceded in a number of measures, afterwards known as "the laws of 1848," every important demand Deák had ever made. The first independent Hungarian Cabinet, with Count Batthyanyi as president, was formed, and the ministry of justice was intrusted to Deák. In this office, during the few months he held it, he worked indefatigably; and he intended completely to reorganize legal administration. His plans, however, were.