by narrow, argillaceous partings; so that the quarries of this rock, at a distance, assume a striped and riband-like appearauce. These limestone beds, when purest, contain 90 per cent. of carbonate of lime; the residue consisting, apparently, of alumine, iron and silex. In places where these beds are less pure, alumine of course abounds. The blue lias, which contains much iron, affords a strong lime, distinguished by its property of setting under water. The white lias takes a polish, and may be used for the purposes of lithography. The lias clay often occurs in the form of soft slate or shale, which divides into very thin lamina, and is frequently much impregnated with bitumen and iron pyrites; in consequence of which, when laid in heaps with fagots, and once ignited, it will continue to burn slowly until the iron pyrites is wholly decomposed. When it falls in large masses from the cliffs upon the sea-shore, as it often does in England, and becomes moistened by sea-water, it ignites spontaneously. The alum-slate of Whitby, in England, is of this sort. Lias clay is impregnated with a large dose of common salt, and sulphate of magnesia and soda; in consequence of which, springs of water, rising through it, contain these salts in solution. The Cheltenham and Gloucester springs are in this clay. The lias is remarkable for the number and variety of its organic remains, among which are numerous chambered univalves, bivalves, certain species of fish and vertebral animals, allied to the order of lizards, some of which are of enormous size. The ichthyosaurus, one of these, has the orbit of its eye 10 inches long and 7 broad; and the plesiosaurus, of which 5 species have been found, measures 20 feet in length. This rock also embraces, in some instances, bones of the turtle, fossil wood and jet. The lias crosses England from near Whitby, in Yorkshire, to Lyme, in Dorsetshire. The same formation occurs also in France, and in the Alps and the Jura. The most valuable mineral substances obtained from it are water-setting lime and alum shale..

LIBANUS, MOUNT. (See Lebanon.) LIBATION (Latin, libatio, libamentum, from libare, to pour out); properly, a drink offering; but used also for other offerings to the gods, as a meal-cake, or something similar, placed on the altar, and a part of which was burned. Libations were also made at domestic meals, some of the food being thrown into the fire on the hearth, in honor of the lares, Of all fruits, a small portion was likewise placed

on an altar, table, &c., in honor of the gods, or thrown into the sea, in honor of the sea deities. The libations to the dead were not performed till the ninth day after the burning or interment, and consisted of milk, wine, or blood, and generally concluded the funeral solemnities. In sacrifices, the priest was first obliged to taste the wine with which he sprinkled the victims, and cause those to do the same who offered the sacrifice. This ceremony was called libare (delibare), whence it also means to touch or taste something. Among the Greeks, the σnovon, or λoßn, was similar to the libatio of the Romans.

LIBEL, in law, is defined to be the malicious defamation of any person, made public either by writing, printing or pictures, in order to provoke him to anger, or to expose him to public hatred, contempt or ridicule. When defamatory words are merely spoken in conversation, they exist no longer than during the act of giving them utterance, and are heard only by those in whose presence they are used; but, when they are committed to paper, they become permanent in their nature, and are capable of being disseminated far and wide. Words, again, may be spoken in haste, and without thought; but the act of writing necessarily requires time and deliberation. For these reasons, libelling is regarded, by our law, as a more heinous offence than slandering, which is the techniçal name for spoken defamation; and numberless expressions are libellous, if written and made public, which are not punishable, if they are merely spoken. Thus, unless the slanderous words be such as tend to cause it to be believed, that the person slandered is guilty of some crime punishable by law, as theft or perjury, or that he is infected with some disease which renders him unfit to mix in society; or unless they tend to injure him in the particular trade from which he derives his livelihood; or unless they have actually been productive of some damage to him, they are not actionable, though false. For instance, it is not legal slander to say of a private gentleman, that he is a swindler, if he has received no specific damage therefrom, beyond the mere annoyance of having been subjected to such an imputation. But such accusations as these, and all others which hold up individuals to public hatred, contempt or ridicule, become libellous when the remembrance of them is deliberately perpetuated by their being committed to writing. Libellers may be brought to punishment by a prosecution on the part of the government, or.

be compelled to make reparation by a civil action. The civil action is grounded upon the injury which the libel is supposed to occasion to the individual; the public prosecution upon its tendency to provoke a breach of the peace. If the charges contained in the libel are true, a civil action cannot be maintained, because it is considered that every man must bear the consequences of his own act; and, therefore, if he has laid himself open to accusation, he must endure it as the natural result of his own crimes or folly. But, inasmuch as the malicious propagation even of that which is true, is calculated to disturb the public peace, the truth of the libellous matter is no defence, by the common law, upon a prosecution by the government, although, without doubt, it will, in many cases, entitle the defendant to the merciful consideration of the court, when it decides upon the quantum of punishment to be awarded.* In civil actions, again, it is necessary to prove that the publication of the libel was made to others besides the person at whom it is aimed; for, however false and atrocious it may be, it is evident that the person libelled can derive no injury from it, so long as its very existence is known to none but himself. Therefore an abusive letter, written by one man to another, is not sufficiently published to support an action, unless the writer shows it to a third person, because the person to whom it is addressed cannot be injured by it, unless he himself chooses to make it public; nevertheless, the author of such a letter may be prosecuted by indictment, for it equally tends to create a breach of the peace. With these distinctions, civil actions and prosecutions for libel stand very much on the same footing. In ordinary cases, it is not necessary to prove malice on the part of the libeller; for, even supposing that the libel was published without any malicious design, yet the injury to the individual, and the danger to the public peace, are not the less on that account. But, although the charges contained in a libel are false, yet, under the particular circumstances of certain cases, the author is excused, unless express proof can be produced of his having been influenced by hatred or malice. These are called privileged communications. The master who gives a bad character of the servant who has left him, is privileged, if he acts bona fide, and not

officiously; but if, without application being made to him to give a character, he volunteers officiously to send one to the person who is about to hire the servant, he is not privileged, and must stand or fall with the truth or falsehood of his charges. So, if a father writes to his son, bona fide, warning him against a person whose character he has reason to suspect, that is a privileged communication. It is difficult to lay down any general definition, which shall comprise all the occasions when communications are privileged; but, perhaps, we shall not be very wrong in saying that, whenever a communication is made bona fide, unofficiously, and without malice, and either the person who makes it, or the person to whom it is made, has a real substantial interest in the subject to which it relates, it is a privileged communication, and the mere fact of its not being true will not render the person who makes it liable, either to a civil action, or to a criminal prosecution. A fair criticism on a public work, or print, &c.; a fair comment on a place of public entertainment; a fair and impartial account of the proceedings in a court of justice, and the like, are not considered libellous, unless the subjects to which they relate are in themselves of such an obscene, blasphemous or scandalous nature, that a due regard to decency enjoins that they should not be publicly discussed, under which circumstances, even a correct statement becomes indictable. In a civil action, the plaintiff recovers damages, the amount of which is settled by the jury. But, upon an indictment, the jury has merely to acquit the defendant, or to find him guilty, after which the court passes judgment, and awards the punishment, which is generally fine and imprisonment, or both; but, by statute 1 George IV, c. 8, persons convicted a second time of a blasphemous or seditious libel, may be banished for such a term of years as the court thinks fit. The jury decide on the legal innocence or criminality of the alleged libel, without being bound by the direction of the judge. (See Jury.)-Libel, in the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts, is the name given to the formal written statement of the complainant's ground of complaint against the defendant.

LIBER; a surname of Bacchus among the Romans, referring to the idea of a deliverer, or liberator. Liber was originally an old Italian god of fertility, whose name was probably derived from the old word libare (to pour out, to water). He was

worshipped in connexion with Libera (Proserpine) and Ceres.

LIBERAL. In the article Arts, the name of liberal arts is said to have been given, originally, to those which were considered suitable for freemen, in contradistinction to those which were left to slaves. In modern times, the word liberal has recoived a peculiar political meaning. The two great parties throughout the European continent, are composed of those who adhere to the ancient règime, and object to the principles of equal rights, and of those who, adhering to the latter, are thence called liberals. The struggle is between the feudal, or aristocratic, and the democratic principle. There exists, of course, a great variety of shades in both parties. The word liberal received the most distinct signification, in a political point of view, in France, during the years preceding the revolution of 1830. It then meant the party opposed to the ultras and the hierarchists. At present, the name has no longer a distinct party meaning in France, because the liberal party rule. But this party is divided into the party du mouvement, or those who wish further changes, and the stabilitarians, who wish to keep things as they are. The latter, at this moment, hold the reins of government. (See the articles Doctrinaires, Centre, and Côté Droit.)

LIBERAL ARTS. (See Arts.) LIBERIA; the name which, in 1824, on the motion of general Robert Goodloe Harper, was given to the territory purchased by the American colonization society, on the western coast of Africa. The origin and purposes of this association have been already described in the article Colonization Society, as well as the ill success of the first attempt to establish a settlement, in 1820. In the summer of 1821, cape Montserado, or Mesurado, with a large tract of adjoining country, was purchased of the native chiefs, or head-men. The emigrants first established themselves on cape Montserado, under the direction of doctor Ayres, Jan. 7, 1822. Almost immediately after taking possession of the cape, doctor Ayres was, in consequence of severe illness, obliged to return to the U. States; but, happily for the colony, Mr. Jehudi Ashmun arrived, and assumed the superintendence of affairs, Aug. 8. For more than six years, this able man devoted all his powers to the work of establishing, upon broad and sure foundations, this colony, so interesting to the U. States, and so full of hope for Africa. His defence of the infant settlement, in

December, 1822, against the united forces of the natives, showed great courage and talent. During the visit of the present secretary* of the society to the colony, in 1824, the system of government now in operation was adopted, and the benefits which have resulted from it are great. The supreme power resides in the agent of the society, but all the civil and military officers of the colony are annually elected by the people. Through the negotiations of the late Mr. Ashmun, great accessions were made to the original territory of Liberia. Full possession has been obtained of large tracts of country, and a jurisdiction (which excludes all foreign nations from making settlements) acquired over the coast, from cape Mount to Trade Town, a distance of 150 miles. The territory of Liberia is generally low upon the coast, but gradually rises towards the interior, and, at a distance of from 20 to 30 miles from the sea, hills are visible, of considerable elevation. About 48 miles due north-west from cape Montserado, is Grand Cape mount, which is elevated from a level country, on a base of about four miles in diameter, 900 feet above the sea, which washes it on three sides. This mount, the north-western extremity of Liberia bay, is covered with a deep and unfading foliage. Several springs of excellent water descend from it, and the Pissou river (a broad, but irregular and sluggish stream, which has been traced to about 100 miles from its mouth) empties itself into the ocean on its northern side. The St. Paul's river, which flows into Liberia bay, at the distance of from eight to nine miles north of cape Montserado, is of considerable magnitude, and supposed to admit, above its falls (about 20 miles from its mouth), of boat navigation for 200 or 300 miles. The Montserado river is 40 miles long, and enters the sea on the northern side of the cape of the same name. In the Junk district, south-east of cape Montserado 40 miles, are two considerable rivers, one descending from the north-north-west, and the other from the east-north-east, and pouring their waters into the ocean at the distance of only two miles from each other. The river St. John's, 81 miles south-east from cape Montserado, is larger than any we have mentioned, and represented by Mr. Ashmun as majestic, and navigable for vessels of 90 to 100 tons, abounding with fish, and having its course through a fertile, delicious and salubrious country, of a rich and mellow soil, fanned 16 hours in every * R. R. Gurley.

24, even in the dry season, by a sea breeze, tempered and sweetened, in its passage up the river, by the verdure which crowns its banks, rendering the scene one of the most delightful that can be imagined. Cape Montserado, upon which is situated Monrovia (so called in honor of president Monroe, one of the earliest and most efficient friends of the colonization society), the earliest settlement made in Liberia, is about 6° 27′ N. lat., and 10° 40′ W. lon. from Greenwich. Cape Montserado is elevated about 80 feet above the ocean, is washed by the water on three sides, and connected with a level tract of land on the fourth. Its length, from north-west to south-east, is three and one third miles; its average width, from north-east to south-west (directly across from the river to the ocean), three fourths of a mile. It comprehends about 1600 acres. From May to October, the wind, on this coast, is uniformly from southsouth-west. In November and December, the sea breeze varies from south-southwest to north-north-west, the land breeze commonly from north-east and north. Masters of vessels should remember that this coast may, at all seasons, be descended with little difficulty; but that the ascent, between January and May, is exceedingly slow, both the current and wind being in opposition. Vessels standing by cape Mount ought to give this cape a birth of two or three leagues. The anchorage ground, at the distance of one or two miles north-east of cape Montserado, is safe and good. The American colonization society has transported to Liberia 1402 free persons of color. Between 100 and 200 slaves, liberated from the grasp of pirates on the coast, have been placed under the protection of the colony. About 300 slaves, taken while about to be brought into the U. States contrary to law, have been removed to Liberia by the government of the U. States. There are four flourishing settlements within the limits of the colony -Mourovia, Caldwell, the Half-way Farms (or New Georgia), and Millsburg, situated 20 miles in the interior, on the eastern bank of the St. Paul's. One of the native tribes has voluntarily placed itself under the laws of the colony, and others have expressed a desire to follow its example. The natives, in the vicinity of Liberia, may be divided into three great classes-the Fey or Vey tribes occupying the country from Gallnias river to Grand Cape mount, a distance of 50 miles, and which are estimated by Mr. Ashmun at 1500. Between cape Mount and cape Montserado is the

Dey tribe, about half the number of the Veys. South-west of Montserado are the Bassas, extending over various countries. Their number may be estimated at 150,000. The Feys are described as a proud, selfish, deceitful race; the Deys as indolent, pacific and inoffensive, and the Bassas as industrious, and many of them laborious. It is not to be understood, however, that each of these classes is held together and directed by a single government. They are all of them broken up into small and feeble tribes, utterly incapable of conducting warlike operations in a united and powerful manner. The people farther in the interior are of a more elevated and civilized character, have some knowledge of the Arabic language, and some acquaintance with the more useful arts. The articles to be obtained by trade at Liberia are chiefly ivory, camwood, gold, tortoise-shell, hides, the teeth of the seahorse, and a small quantity of coffee. The country abounds in cattle, goats, swine and fowls, and in most of the fruits and productions of other tropical climates. Thus far, the efforts of the American colonization society have been attended with great, if not unexampled, success. The men of color, who have migrated to Liberia, have felt the influences of enterprise and freedom, and are improved alike in their condition and character. Those who were slaves have become masters; those who were once dependent have become independent: once the objects of charity, they are now benefactors, and the very individuals who, a few years ago, felt their spirits depressed in our land, and incapable of high efforts and great achievements, now stand forth conscious of their dignity and power, sharing in all the privileges and honors of a respected, a free, and a Christian people. The plan of the American colonization society appears practicable to a very great extent, and, we trust, will be made the means of inestimable good to the U. States and to Africa.

LIBERTAS, among the Romans, personified liberty; according to Hyginus, a daughter of Jupiter and Juno. When she is represented on coins, with her head uncovered, she is the Roman Liberty; but, with a diadem and veil, she is the goddess Liberty, in general. Gracchus built a temple to the latter on mount Aventine.

LIBERTINES, or LIBERTINI ; a sect of fanatics, in the sixteenth century, in Holland and Brabant, who placed religion in a perfect union of the soul with God, which having once taken place, all difference between evil and good, sin and vir

tue, ceased; so that the individual might give himself up to his appetites and passions, as these were no longer bad.

Liberty of the PRESS. (See Press.) LIBERTY TREE. At the time of the disturbances excited in the American colonies by the stamp act, a large American elm was used, in Boston, to hang obnoxious characters in effigy, and to make known the intentions of the sons of liberty (as the patriots were called), who also held their meetings under it. The following inscription was placed upon it-"This tree was planted in the year 1646, and pruned by order of the sons of liberty, February 14, 1766." It was thenceforward called the liberty tree, but, in 1774, was cut down by the English troops, by whom the town was occupied. The example was imitated in other parts of the country, most of the towns having their liberty tree; and, on the breaking out of the French revolution (1789), the same emblem was adopted. A liberty tree was planted by the Jacobins in Paris, and many other cities of France followed their example. The same ceremony was practised by the French troops, on their entrance into foreign countries. The Lombardy poplar was first used, but the French name of this tree (peuplier), affording matter of derision, oaks or fir-trees were afterwards used.

Liberty, Cap of. The right of covering the head was, in early times, a mark of liberty. Slaves always went bare-headed, and one of the ceremonies of emancipation was the placing a cap on their head, by their former master. Thus the cap (or the hat) became the symbol of liberty, and has played a part in many revolutions. The Swiss owe their liberty to the hat which Gessler ordered to be saluted as a mark of submission. The arms of the united Swiss cantons have a round hat for a crest. In England, the cap (blue, with a white border, and the inscription Liberty, in letters of gold), is used as a symbol of the constitutional liberty of the nation, and Britannia sometimes bears it on the point of her spear; more commonly, however, she has the trident of Neptune, without the cap, in her left hand, whilst she offers the olive branch of peace to the world in her right hand. The cap was used in France, as the symbol of liberty, at the beginning of the revolution (1789); and its red color was borrowed from that of the liberated galley-slaves of Marseilles, who went in great numbers to Paris. The Jacobin club, at Paris, afterwards made the red cap a badge of mem

bership, and it was, therefore, afterwards called the Jacobin cap.

LIBRA; the Roman pound unit for weighing. (See As.) The ancient Romans reckoned money also by pounds, and a libra of silver was worth about thirteen dollars. This word passed over to the various nations of Latin descent or, mixture. (See Livre.)

LIBRARIES. The most ancient library is fabulously ascribed to the Egyptian king Osymandyas of Memphis. Pisistratus first founded a library among the Greeks, at Athens; Xerxes carried it to Persia, but Seleucus Nicator caused it to be restored to Athens. The most celebrated library of antiquity was the Alexandrian. (See Alexandria.) Emilius Paulus and Lucullus brought the first libraries, as the spoils of war, to Rome. Asinius Pollio founded the first public library, which was also taken in war. Julius Cæsar established a large library, and intrusted it to the care of the learned Varro. Augustus founded two libraries, one of which was called Palatina, because it was in the temple of Apollo, on mount Palatine; the other was in the portico of Octavia, and was called Octaviana. The conflagration of Nero destroyed several libraries, which Domitian restored. Trajan founded a very excellent library. Publius Victor mentions 28 public libraries in Rome; there were, besides, extensive private libraries. These treasures were destroyed or dispersed, partly by the ravages of the barbarians, partly by the iconoclasts. In the ninth and eleventh centuries, Basil the Macedonian, emperor of the East, and the learned Comnenian imperial family, made several collections of books, principally in the convents of the Ægean islands and mount Athos. The Arabians had, in Alexandria, a considerable library of Arabian books. Al-Mamoun collected many Greek manuscripts in Bagdad. In the West, libraries were founded in the second half of the eighth century, by the encouragement of Charlemagne. In France, one of the most celebrated was that in the abbey St. Germain des Près, near Paris. In Germany, the libraries of Fulda, Corvey, and, in the eleventh century, that of Hirschau, were valuable. In Spain, in the twelfth century, the Moors had 70 public libraries, of which that of Cordova contained 250,000 volumes. In England and Italy, libraries were also founded with great zeal, particularly, in the former country, by Richard Aungerville; in the latter, by Petrarch, Boccaccio and others. After the inven