Such are works on the Mathematics, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, etc.

An ORATION is a popular address on some interesting and important subject. It includes harangues, speeches, addresses, and sermons.

NOVELS are fictitious prose compositions, and include allegories, fables, and stories of all kinds. A Fable is a fictitious narration, either in prose or poetry, intended to enforce some useful truth or precept.

POETICAL COMPOSITIONS.

PASTORAL POETRY, from the Latin word pastor, a shepherd, originally meant that poetry in which the scenes and objects of a shepherd's life are celebrated or described; but the term is now generally applied to all poetry descriptive of rural scenes and country life. The Bucolics of Virgil, Thomson's Seasons, and most of Walter Scott's poems, are both pastoral and descriptive.

LYRIC POETRY, so called from the lyre, an important musical instrument of the ancients, embraces all poetry intended to be set, or that might be set to music. It is written in the language of emotion, and includes songs, odes, psalms, hymns, etc.

EPIC POETRY describes important actions or events, generally the achievements of some distinguished hero; and its object is to improve the morals, and inspire a love of virtue, bravery, and illustrious actions. The great Epic poems of the world are the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the Æneid of Virgil, the Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso, and the Paradise Lost of Milton.

DRAMATIC POETRY is that which contains no narrative on the part of the poet, but is all supposed to be spoken or performed on the stage by the different actors or characters who are introduced. Of this poetry there are two divisions, Tragedy and Comedy. The former treats principally of the loftier passions, vices, successes, and distresses of mankind; the latter, of their whims, fancies, foibles, and follies. Shakspeare is considered the greatest of dramatic writers.

ADDITIONAL KINDS OR FORMS OF WRITING.

Both Prose and Poetry are also spoken of as being Narrative, Descriptive, Didactic, or Miscellaneous.

Narrative writing relates events or transactions; and includes Storytelling, Fables, Allegories, etc. Narrative enters largely into Epic poetry. Descriptive writing gives an account of persons, animals, places, objects, etc. It simply describes, and is often introduced in narrative. Scott's Lady of the Lake, his Marmion, his Lord of the Isles, and Thomson's Seasons, are fine examples of Descriptive poems.

Didactic writing is that which contains doctrines, precepts, principles, rules, etc., and is intended for instruction in some branch of knowledge. Among Didactic poems are Virgil's Georgics, Pope's Essay on Criticism, Armstrong's Poem on Health, and some of Cowper's Poems.

Miscellaneous writing embraces all kinds of composition. It gives definitions, lays down propositions, states causes, deals in argument and illustration, deduces conclusions, and introduces every variety of style.

THE HIGHER QUALITIES OF STYLE, OR FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

By STYLE is meant the peculiar mode or manner in which a writer or speaker expresses his thoughts.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE is that language in which some of the leading words are used in a sense different from their literal or common signification. Thus, if I speak of "the light of day" and "the darkness of night," I use the words "light" and "darkness" in their literal signification; but if I say, “Light ariseth to the upright in darkness,” here “light” is used for comfort, and "darkness" for adversity. Also, "thirsty ground," "angry ocean, ," "a clear head," "a hard heart," etc., are figures of speech. So when the sun is spoken of as "the powerful king of day," this is figurative language.

Under the same head are also embraced what are sometimes called "figures of thought," in which, although the words are used in their literal sense, yet the sentiment is different from that which the literal meaning of the words conveys. Thus, when one addresses stones, trees, fields, rivers, etc., as if they were living creatures, or addresses a person who is dead or absent as if present, these are figures of thought.

The principal Figures of Speech (including figures of thought), are the Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, and Irony.

A SIMILE (Sim'-i-le), or comparison, is a figure of speech by which we liken one thing to another for the purpose of presenting a subject in a more impressive light. Thus, "The eloquence of Demosthenes is like a rapid torrent," is a simile in which eloquence is likened to a torrent. Similes are founded on certain resemblances of objects. They are sparkling ornaments which add lustre and beauty to language.

A METAPHOR is a simile in which the words expressing the likeness between the objects are omitted.

state.

like the pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice. The simile asserts nothing but what is literally false, but figuratively true. comes so near to painting as metaphor. thing to be another, as in the above examples a man is imagined to be a

is true; the metaphor asserts what Of all the figures of speech, none By a play of fancy it imagines one

fox, soldiers to be lions, etc. All language is strongly tinctured with metaphor.

An ALLEGORY is a figure of speech in which one object is described in such a manner as to represent another, as when, in the 80th Psalm, verses 8-15, a vine is described in such a manner as to represent the people of Israel. Fables or parables, and riddles, are allegories; and the moral of an allegory is its real meaning. Allegories were a favorite method of giving reproof and imparting instruction in ancient times. See the parable spoken by Nathan to David, 2 Samuel, xii.; the parables in the New Testament, etc. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, in which a journey is described to illustrate the Christian life, is an allegory.

PERSONIFICATION is a figure by which we attribute life, sex, and action to inanimate objects, as when we speak of the sun as a monarch-"He looks in boundless majesty abroad." Also in the following, speaking of the going forth of the Israelites out of Egypt: "The sun saw it, and fled; Jordan was driven back; the mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs."

An APOSTROPHE is a figure by which we suddenly address or appeal to a dead or absent person, or an object, as if present, and as if the person or object could hear and be affected by what is spoken. This figure is intimately blended with personification, for we always personify an object before we apostrophize it. For fine examples of the apostrophe, see David's lament over the dead Absalom, in which he addresses him, "O my son Absalom! my son, my son Absalom!" (2 Samuel, xviii., 33.) Also Fourth Reader, p. 345; David's lament over Saul (2 Samuel, i., 21-27); Webster's Bunker Hill Oration, etc.

HYPERBOLE is a figure by which we represent a thing as far greater or far less, better or worse, than it is in reality, as when we call a tall man a giant;" when we say of a lean man, "he is a mere shadow,' 99.66 a mere skeleton;" or when we use such expressions as these: "As swift as the wind,' "as white as snow, ""as quick as a flash." Hyperbole is the language of exaggeration, and is very common in the conversation of passionate and over-enthusiastic people. Even our common forms of compliment are, most of them, extravagant hyperboles, such as "Your obedient servant, 'yours to command," etc.

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IRONY consists in reproving under the appearance of praising-laughing at a man under the disguise of appearing to speak well of him, etc. In spoken irony, the true meaning is generally discerned from the manner of the speaker, as by a smile, an arch look, or perhaps by an affected gravity of countenance; and in written language by the context, circumstances of the object, etc. If one known to be a very impudent fellow should be spoken of as "a person of his distinguished modesty," it would be an instance of strong irony.

Satire is a discourse, or poem, in which wickedness or folly is exposed with severity. Unlike the lampoon, it is general, and not personal; and its object is the reformation of what it exposes.

MINOR QUALITIES OF STYLE.

In addition to the greater or less use of the figures of speech which distinguish different writers, the style of a writer may be bold, nervous, stiff, abrupt, weak or feeble, simple, affected, pure or chaste, florid, concise, diffuse, bombastic, etc.

A Bold style is one in which both the thought and the manner are bold and startling, and in which the principles advanced are carried out to their legitimate results.

A Nervous or forcible style is one that is characterized by vigor and energy of manner and thought—a style that makes a deep and lasting impression.

A Stiff or formal style is one that is harsh, constrained, not natural and easy; corresponding to the stiff and formal in behavior.

An Abrupt style is one in which the sentences are short and abrupt, and the thoughts appear to be unconnected—in which there are sudden changes from one subject to another.

A Weak or feeble style is one which is commonplace in manner and matter, and that has little power to arrest the attention or excite the feelings. A Simple style is one in which there is little apparent labor, and no attempt at any thing but merely to be understood; but it is not puerile and childish. Some of the best descriptions of Irving are notable for their great simplicity of style.

A Pure or chaste style is one that uses pure and correct English; a style that avoids the use of obsolete words on the one hand, and of newly-coined and foreign words on the other.

An Affected style-the opposite of a simple style-is one that is given to false show-a pretentious style. It is a style that makes great pretensions, with but few corresponding results.

A Florid style is one in which there is great profusion of ornament, an over-abundance of figurative language. It shows an obvious desire to produce effect; a fondness for the pomp and parade of language.

A Concise style is one in which a writer or speaker expresses his thoughts in few words, without circumlocution, and with little ornament. It is a style which retrenches all superfluities, and marks the distinct and accurate writer. It is precision in language.

A Diffuse or loose style-which characterizes a prolix writer-is a style that uses many words to express the meaning. It is the opposite of a concise style. One great source of a diffuse style is the injudicious use of those words termed synonyms.

A Bombastic style is one in which great swelling words are used to express common thoughts; and it arises out of a serious endeavor to raise a low or familiar subject above its rank. A species of the bombastic is what is sometimes called fustian or rant, such as boisterous, empty declamation— "the rant of fanatics."

Both in style and subject-matter a writer may also be humorous, pathetic, or sublime.

A Humorous writer is one who, affecting to be grave and serious, paints his objects in such colors as to excite mirth and laughter. A humorous writer is a witty writer; but while wit may consist of a single brilliant thought, humor is a continuous and pleasing flow of wit. Wit often offends, but humor is always agreeable. The poets Hood, Holmes, and Saxe have written many humorous pieces.

The Pathetic in writing is that which is calculated to move the feelings, particularly the feelings of pity, sorrow, and grief. It is in the pathetic part of a discourse that eloquence exerts its greatest power. The poets Hood and Holmes are noted both for their humor and pathos.

The Sublime in writing-which is adapted to grand and noble objects only-consists of boldness and grandeur in the thoughts, so expressed in language as to fill the mind with lofty conceptions. In the sacred Scriptures are found the highest instances of the sublime. The most noted example is the following: "God said, Let there be light, and there was light." See page 239 for examples. Bombast is one species of false sublime.

II. THE ELEMENTS OF VOCAL EXPRESSION.

Next to the primary requisites of a clear articulation and correct pronunciation, the vocal expression which shall correctly picture forth the varied thoughts, sentiments, and feelings intended to be conveyed by written language, depends upon the following MODES of the voice. The voice is varied by different modes and degrees of Quantity, Force, Stress, Time, Pitch, Emphasis, Quality, and Inflection.

QUANTITY relates to the volume or quantity of sound given to syllables. Thus the syllable pit is incapable of receiving the same quantity of sound that can be given to the syllable rōll; yet either may be pronounced with greater or less volume or prolongation of sound, without varying the degree of force. Quantity is increased both by Force and Time.

FORCE gives increased loudness to sound, and hence, while the time given to the pronunciation of a syllable remains the same, Force increases the quantity or volume of sound. Although the volume of sound may vary from a soft and short whisper to a vehement and prolonged shout, yet it is sufficient for practical purposes to make only three degrees of it, soft, moderate, and loud.

Soft and gentle tones, with little force, are used to express pathetic and subdued feelings, caution, secrecy, wonder, reverence, awe, pity, tenderness, and love.

Moderate force is used in unimpassioned discourse, and in reading narrative, descriptive, or didactic writings.