the exact latitude of his point of departure, and by selecting correctly the star by which he should shape his course. For the rest, his countrymen were well able to furnish him with a serviceable vessel. From the temples of Artemis and Apollo in the citadel it was a short descent over rocky ground to the harbour, which, like the city, was protected on the land side by a strong wall. Here were the veúsoɩkol, or docks, and the armoury, or arsenal, called óжλoðýκn. A large Massalian ship was a good sea-boat, and well able to make a voyage into the northern ocean. She would be from 150 to 170 feet long-the beam of a merchant ship being a quarter, and of a war-ship one-eighth the length-a depth of hold of 25 or 26 feet, and a draught of 10 to 12. Her tonnage would be 400 to 500, so that the ship of Pytheas was larger and more seaworthy than the crazy little Santa Maria with which, eighteen hundred years afterwards, Columbus discovered the New World. A Grecian ship was strongly built on regular principles, commencing from the Tрómis, or keel, a horizontal beam which in the older ships rose from the centre in a curve. Under it was the κέλευσμα, Οι false keel, and above the Spúoxov, or keelson. The stem (σrcîpa) and stern-post were inserted on the keel nearly at right angles, and from the keel also rose the ribs (èyxoidia), connected and strengthened by cross-beams (σTpwrp). The upper deck, or катáσтρwμа, had bulwarks made of trellis-work. In large ships there was a lower deck, or edapos, above the hold (Koîλov), with a second set of cross-beams (Čvyóv). The prow (popa) and poop (púμva) were raised above the upper deck, and had half-decks, called iκpíopa. The bow and stern were both pointed and identical in construction, the stem and stern-posts both ending in a volute, or the neck of a swan. But the bows were fitted with a beak or ram, level with the water-line, consisting of rafters let into the body of the vessel, and ending in a point shod with iron, in three blunt teeth. Two beams, supported by props, protruded from both sides of the beam. The hawse-holes on each side of the stern were bound with iron, and were called ¿paλuoí, or eyes. The Grecian ships were further strengthened externally by a wooden ledge along the water-line, and also by four stout hawsers, called Vπоğμara, passed round the hull below the water-line. Boards were placed over the ribs inboard. On the poop there was a tent-like house for the pilot and helmsman called the σký, and there were two oar-like rudders or dáλia, on each side of the stern-post, which were worked by a tiller-rope, called xaλvós, running across the vessel, the rudders always being kept parallel. The mainmast, or iσròs μéyas, was stepped in the centre of the ship, and fitted with yards to which square sails were laced a mainsail, maintopsail, topgallant sail, and even a triangular royal. The mast had stays (πpórovo), backstays (títovoi), and shrouds (kaλoí). There were two smaller fore and after masts with No. VI.-JUNE, 1893.] 2 L lateen sails, used for paying her off or for putting her up into the wind. The upper deck was covered with an awning, in fine weather, called κατάβλημα, where a flagstaff was also raised (στηλίς) with a flag (σημεῖον). The rowing-power of ancient galleys, supplementary to the sails, has been looked upon as the equivalent to the steam-power of modern times. In the Grecian ship there was a narrow gangway on both sides, called Tápodos, lower than the upper deck, and just above the rowlocks for the upper tier of oars. The rowing apparatus, or ěукшov, was in the centre part of the ship, and the space for the péra or rowers was called ζύγωσις, the bench itself being ζυγά. The distance between the rowers was 4 feet, and in a large trireme there were fifty-four badaμítai or bottom rowers, fifty-eight (vyírai or middle, and sixty-two @pavíraι or upper rowers, making one hundred and seventy-four all told. The oars for the Oalauira were 7 feet long, and the length had to be increased by 3 feet in each ascending row. The oar (kn) passed through a circular pμa or rowlock, which was covered by a tarpaulin when not in use. The sailors or rowers were of course much more numerous than the ἐπιβάται or marines. The κελευστής or officer in command of the rowers had a lieutenant (èóπтŋs), and not the least important person on board was the pinpauλns or piper, by whose music the rowers kept time. The anchor (ayκupa), as shown on the most ancient coins, had two flukes, and a shank with a ring at the end for the cable. In some anchors there was also a ring at the meeting of the flukes, to raise or turn them if they had not caught the ground. The cable (oxovía ἀγκυρεία) was worked by a στροφεῖον or capstan; and for going on shore there were boat-hooks (KovToί) and gang-boards (kdipakides).* In the days of Alexander, a voyage of discovery beyond the Pillars of Hercules was as bold and daring a conception, as was a voyage in search of the Indies by the western route, in the days of Ferdinand and Isabella. We have seen that Pytheas, the first of the great explorers, like the illustrious Genoese of later times, prepared himself for his difficult task by long and patient study of the astronomical bearings of the question. Thus well-provided with all the knowledge of his time, he raised his anchor,† and commenced his coasting voyage towards the Sacred Promontory, the western limit of the known world. The Grecian ships were supposed to make an average of about 500 stadia or 50 miles in a day's sail, the stadium being the unit of measurement for all geographical distances.§ Coasting along near the shore, the ship of *T!.is account of the structure and fittings of a Grecian ship is taken from the work of E. Guhl and W. Koner, translated by Hueffer, 'Life of Greeks and Romans.' Chatto & Windus: 1877. In the end of December, according to Lelewel, p. 35. Cape St. Vincent. § Colonel W. Martin Leake contributed a valuable paper on the stadium as a linear measure to Vol. IX. of the Society's Journal. The original stadium was the length Pytheas would first have come to the Massalian settlement at the mouth of the Rhone, and then to Rhoda and Emporium (the modern Ampurias) in the beautiful bay of Rosas, at the base of the Pyrenees. Next the temple of Artemis, crowning the lofty promontory now dedicated to St. Martin came in sight, where the Massalians had their Hemeroskopion or look-out station. There was a settlement called Artemisia (the modern Denia) at the foot of the heights, where the explorers could anchor and find rest. The last friendly haven would be at Mænaca, the modern Malaga. Sailing through the Straits of Calpe, the Greek mariners would scarcely venture to stop at Carthaginian Gadeira, although, in times gone by, the native ruler of the country had been on such cordial terms with Phocæa. But the cruel Semites since established at Gadeira were enemies of western civilisation, and Pytheas sailed slowly on to the Sacred Promontory, the end of the known world, very slowly, for the 48 leagues from Cadiz to Cape St. Vincent took him five sailing days. Pytheas continued his coasting voyage to the north as far as Estrymnis (Cape Finisterre), the probable furthest point of Himilco, then eastward along the north coast of Iberia, and round the Bay of Biscay. His narrative is lost, but we gather that he described the coasts of Iberia, made valuable observations respecting the tides, and furnished information touching the best way of passing from Iberia to Celtica or Gaul. "He had acquired a practical acquaintance of the navigation along the north coast of Spain." His first recorded observation on the voyage had for its result that the longest day was fifteen hours, which would be in lat. 40° 59' off Oporto. Pytheas found that the north-western part of Gaul formed a long promontory called Calbion, the country of a tribe called the Ostimii, which stretched far to the westward. He even thought that it extended for 2000 stadia to the west of Cape Finisterre of Spain. But great allowances must be made for errors in longitude at a time when no means were known of estimating it, beyond guess-work. He mentions an island off the coast called Uxisama, evidently intended for Ushant. A second observation is given of sixteen hours for the length of the longest day, equal to 49° N., which is within 30 miles of the latitude of Ushant. The explorer left the north coast of Gaul, and shaped a direct course for a part of Britain which he called Cantion (Kent), the Cantium of Cæsar. This must have been the route, because he reported that the coast of Gaul, where he left it, was some days' sail from Cantion. The Cantion of Pytheas was doubtless the modern Kent, although it of the Olympic foot-race, equal to 600 Greek feet. The Greek foot, deduced from the stylobate of the Parthenon, is equal to 12 1375 English inches. This gives 8,7 stadia to a statute mile, 10 stadia to a geographical mile, and 600 stadia to a degree. A stadium was also of a Roman mile, equal to 625 Roman feet; and a Roman foot was 11.65 English inches, which gives the same result. may be intended to include additional territory to the north. Here he stopped; and we are told that he not only landed, but travelled over a part of Britain on foot. He probably went westward to collect information respecting the tin trade, which in those days would have entailed a very difficult and perilous journey.* Britain, in the third century before Christ, was almost in a state of nature. The valleys were covered with primeval forests, their lower parts were occupied by vast swamps, and it was only on the downs and hill ranges that there were Gwents, or open clearings. Still the Keltic tribes had been in possession for several centuries, and had made some advances in civilisation. They brought domestic animals with them, raised wheat and other cereals, and had iron tools and arms, wooden chariots with iron fittings, and ornaments of bronze and gold. Pytheas saw and made note of the farming operations and way of living among the natives of Cantion (Kent). Between this south-eastern district and the Gwent now comprising the downs of Wiltshire and South Hampshire there was the great forest of Anderida, extending from Hampshire to the Medway. Pytheas would have to pass this forest on his way to the western part of Britain (the present Cornwall), which was called Belerion. Here he found the country of the tin, which was dug out of the ground in mines with shafts and galleries. The people were very hospitable, their commerce with foreign merchants having civilised them and softened their manners. The metal was carried by them in six days' journey to an island called Ictis (St. Michael's Mount), whence the traders from Gaul conveyed it across the Channel, and down the Rhone to Massalia. "This island is described as surrounded by the sea at high water, but connected with the mainland by a tract of sand left bare at low water, so as to render it a peninsula to which the tin was carried in waggons." Pytheas no doubt gave a stimulus to this trade, and was probably the first to introduce coined money into Britain. After the discovery of the gold mines of Crenides, in 356 B.C., Philip of Macedon produced £250,000 worth of gold coin a year. The beautiful stater of Philip was everywhere diffused. It soon reached Massalia, whence it was circulated inland, and it was seized on by the Gauls as an object of imitation in about B.C. 300. Pytheas may well have * If the account given by Diodorus of Belerion, Ictis, and the tin trade is, as is more than probable, taken from Timæus, it was derived from the work of Pytheas. In that case the journey on foot through Britain must have been to Belerion, and the coast opposite Ictis. † Ptolemy has Bolerium for the Land's End. Posidonius seems to have been the first to use the name Belerion for the tin country. Mictis of Pliny, and Vectis of Ptolemy. Mr. Elton thinks it was Thanet (p. 34). Sir E. Bunbury considers that there is no reasonable doubt that it was St. Michael's Mount to which the description precisely answers. (II. p. 197) Ptolemy gave the name of Vectis to the Isle of Wight. |