"Indeed it is," replied the captain, as he drew a Napoleon from his pocket, and gave it to the Chinese. The Chinese thanked him, and asked for the captain's custom as long as he remained in Canton, although, he added, if he always had such difficult work given him there would be nothing gained by it. From that day the captain could never tell one pair of trowsers from the other, so much were they alike. He brought them both back to France as specimens of Chinese industry. IN ARAGO ON THE SUN. us no very precise idea of the magnitudes which they imply, I recall here a remark that will convey a better understanding of the immensity of the solar volume. If we imagine the center of the sun to coincide with that of the earth, its surface would not only reach the region in which the moon revolves, but would extend nearly as far again beyond." By the transit of Venus in 1769, it was demonstrated that the sun is ninety-five million miles from the earth; and yet, distant as it is, its physical constitution has been determined; and the history of the successive steps by which this proof has been arrived at, forms one of the most interesting chapters in the progress of science. N the Annuaire of the Bureau des Longitudes, recently published in Paris, It was in 1611 that Fabricius, a Dutch appears a paper by the distinguished as- astronomer, first observed spots on the tronomer Arago-"On the Observations eastern edge of the sun, which passed which have made known the Physical slowly across the disk to the western Constitution of the Sun and of different edge, and disappeared after a certain Stars; and an Inquiry into the Conjectures number of days. This phenomenon havof the Ancient Philosophers, and of the Pos- ing been often noted subsequently, the itive Ideas of Modern Astronomers on the conclusion drawn therefrom is, that the Place that the Sun ought to occupy among sun is a spherical body, having a movethe Prodigious Number of Stars which ment of rotation about its center, of which stud the Firmament"-in which all that the duration is equal to twenty-five days appertains to the subject is so ably con- and a half. These dark spots, irregular densed, as to afford material for a popular and variable, but well defined on their summary, which we purpose to convey in edge, are sometimes of considerable dithe present article. The eclipse of the mensions. Some have been seen whose sun of July, 1851, by enabling observers size was five times that of the earth. They to repeat former observations and test are generally surrounded by an aureola their accuracy, furnished some of the re- known as the penumbra, and sensibly less sults which serve to complete the paper luminous than the other portions of the in question, and which may be considered orb. From this penumbra, first observed as settled, owing to the improvements con- by Galileo, many apparently singular detinually taking place in the construction ductions have been made namely, “The of instruments. Although astronomy is sun is a dark body, surrounded at a certain the exactest of sciences, its problems are distance by an atmosphere which may be not yet all fully solved; and for the determ- compared to that of the earth, when the ination of some of these, observers have latter is charged with a continuous stratum to wait for years-in certain instances, of opaque and reflecting clouds. To this for a century or more, until all the circum- first atmosphere succeeds a second, lustances combine for a favorable observa- minous in itself, called the photosphere. tion. From the days of the Epicurean This photosphere, more or less remote philosopher, who, judging from appear- from the inner cloudy atmosphere, would ances, declared the sun to be no more than determine by its outline the visible limits a foot in diameter, to those of living calcu- of the orb. According to this hypothesis, lators, who give to the orb a diameter of there would be spots on the sun every eight hundred and eighty-three thousand time that there occurred in the two conmiles, there has been a marvelous ad- centric atmospheres such corresponding vance. In these dimensions, we have a clear spaces as would allow of our seeing sphere one million four hundred thousand the dark central body uncovered." times larger than the earth. "Numbers This hypothesis is considered by the so enormous," says M. Arago, “not being most competent judges to render often employed in ordinary life, and giving | satisfactory account of the facts. But it very has not been universally adopted. Some writers of authority have lately represented the spots as scoria floating on a liquid surface, and ejected from solar volcanoes, of which the burning mountains of the earth convey but a feeble idea. Hence observations become necessary as to the nature of the incandescent matter of the sun; and when we remember the immense distance of that body, such an attempt may well appear to be one of temerity. The progress of optical science, however, has given us the means of determining this apparently insoluble question. It is well known that physicists are enabled at present to distinguish two kinds of light -natural light and polarized light. A ray of the former exhibits the same properties on any part of its form; not so the latter. A polarized ray is said to have sides, and the different sides have different properties, as demonstrated by many interesting phenomena. Strange as it may seem, these rays thus described as having sides, could pass through the eye of a needle by hundreds of thousands without disturbing each other. Availing themselves, therefore, of the assistance of polarized light, and an instrument named the polariscope, or polarizing telescope, observers obtain a double image of the sun, both alike, and both white; but on reflecting this image on water, or a glass mirror, the rays become polarized-the two images are no longer alike or white, but are intensely colored, while their form remains unchanged. If one is red, the other is green, or yellow and violet, always producing what are called the complementary colors. With this instrument, it becomes possible to tell the difference between natural and polarized light. Another point for consideration is, that for a long time it was supposed, that the light emanating from any incandescent body always came to the eye as natural light, if in its passage it had not been reflected or refracted. But experiment by the polariscope showed, that the ray departing from the surface at an angle sufficiently small was polarized; while at the same time it was demonstrated that the light emitted by any gaseous body in flame-that of street-lamps, for instanceis always in the natural state, whatever be its angle of emission. From these remarks, some idea will be formed of the process necessary to prove whether the substance which renders the sun visible is solid, liquid, or gaseous. On looking at the sun in the polariscope, the image, as before observed, is seen to be purely white-a proof that the medium through which the luminous substance is made visible to us is gaseous. If it were liquid, the light would be colored; and as regards solidity, that is out of the question-the rapid change of spots proves that the outer envelop of the sun is not solid. On whatever day of the year we examine, the light is always white. Thus, these experiments remove the theory out of the region of simple hypothesis, and give certainty to our conclusions respecting the photosphere. Here an example occurs of the aids and confirmations which science may derive from apparently trivial circumstances. Complaint was made at a large warehouse at Paris, that the gas-fitters had thrown the light on the goods from the narrow, and not from the broad side of the flame. Experiments were instituted, which proved that the amount of light was the same whether emitted from the broad or narrow surface. It was shown also, that a gaseous substance in flame appears more luminous when seen obliquely than perpendicularly-which explains what are known as facula and lucules, being those parts of the solar disk that show themselves brighter than other portions of the surface. These are due to the presence of clouds in the solar atmosphere; the inclined portions of the clouds appearing brightest to the spectator. The notion, that there were thousands on thousands of points distinguishing themselves from the rest by a greater accumulation of luminous matter, is thus disposed of. Still, there remained something more to be determined. The existence of the photosphere being proved, the question arose- was there nothing beyond? or did it end abruptly? and this could only be determined at the period of a total eclipse, at the very moment when, the obscuration of the sun being greatest, our atmosphere ceases to be illuminated. Hence the interest felt in an eclipse of the sun of late years. In July, 1842, at a total eclipse of the sun visible in several parts of the continent, the astronomers noticed, just as the sun was hidden by the moon, certain objects, in the form of rose-colored protuberances, about two or three minutes high, astronomically speaking, projected from the surface of the moon. These appearances were variously explained: some supposed them to be lunar mountains; others saw in them effects of refraction or diffraction: but no precise explanation could be given; and mere guesses cannot be accepted as science. Others, again, thought them to be mountains in the sun, the summits stretching beyond the photosphere; but at the most moderate calculation, their height would have been about sixty thousand miles-an elevation which, as is said, the solar attraction would render impossible. Another hypothesis was, that they were clouds floating in a solar, gaseous atmosphere. M. Arago considers the last as the true explanation: it remained the great point to be proved. If it could be ascertained that these red protuberances were not in actual contact with the moon, the demonstration would be complete. Speculation was busy, but nothing could be done in the way of verification until another eclipse took place. There was one in August, 1850, total to the Sandwich Islands, at which, under direction of the French commandant at Tahiti, observations were made, the result being that the red prominences were seen to be separated by a fine line from the moon's circumference. Here was an important datum. It was confirmed by the observations of July, 1851, by observers of different nations at different localities, who saw that the colored peaks were detached from the moon; thus proving that they are not lunar mountains. If it be further ascertained that these luminous phenomena are not produced by the inflexion of rays passing over the asperities of the moon's disk, and that they have a real existence, then there will be a new atmosphere to add to those which already surround the sun; for clouds cannot support themselves in empty space. We come next to that part of the subject which treats of the true place of the sun in the universe. In the year 448 B. C., Archelaus, the last of the Ionian philosophers, without having made any measurements, taught that the sun was a star, but only somewhat larger than the others. Now, the nearest fixed star is two hundred and six thousand times farther from us than the sun: two hundred and six thousand times ninety-five millions of miles-a sum beyond all our habits of thought. The light from the star Alpha of the Centaur is three years in its passage to the earth, traveling at the rate of one hundred and ninety-two thousand miles per second; and there are eighty-six thousand four hundred seconds in a day, and three hundred and sixty-five days in a year. Astounding facts! If the sun, therefore, were removed to the distance of a Centauri, its broad disk, which takes a considerable time in its majestic rising and setting above and below the horizon, would have no sensible dimensions, even in the most powerful telescopes; and its light would not exceed that of stars of the third magnitude-facts which throw the guess of Archelaüs into discredit. If our place in the material universe is thus made to appear very subordinate, we may remember, as M. Arago observes, that man owes the knowledge of it entirely to his own resources, and "thereby has raised himself to the most eminent rank in the world of ideas. Indeed, astronomical investigations might not improperly excuse a little vanity on our part." Among the stars, Sirius is the brightest: but twenty thousand millions of such stars would be required to transmit to the earth a light equal to that of the sun. And if it were difficult to ascertain the nature and quality of the sun, it would appear to be still more so to determine these points with regard to the stars; for the reason that the rays, coming from all parts of their disk, at once are intermingled, and of necessity produce white. This difficulty did not exist in similar investigations on the sun, because its disk is so large, that the rays from any one part of it may be examined while the others are excluded. Under these circumstances, further proof might seem to be hopeless; but advantage was taken of the fact, that there are certain stars which are sometimes light, sometimes dark, either from having a movement of rotation on their own axis, or because they are occasionally eclipsed by a nonluminous satellite revolving around them. It is clear, that while the light is waxing or waning, it comes from a part only of the star's disk; consequently, the neutralization of rays, which takes place when they depart from the whole surface at once, cannot then occur; and from the observations on the portion of light thus transmitted, and which is found to remain white under all its phases, we are entitled to conclude, in M. Arago's words, that "our sun is a star, and that its physical constitution is identical with that of the millions of stars strewn in the firmament." TRUE HISTORY OF THE ROUND TABLE. Winchester, England, hangs the celebrated It appears that, in 1788, Dr. Milner published in the Gentleman's Magazine some papers on the antiquities of Winchester, containing a statement that the celebrated Round Table was shown to Charles V. at Winchester, in 1522, when it was for the last time newly painted; and that it had been reported to be the genuine table of Arthur as early as the twelfth century, having been seen by John Lesley, Bishop of Ross, in 1137. Subsequently, Dr. Milner corrected this statement by altering the date of 1137 to 1539; also by adding that the table was for the first time painted on the occasion of the Emperor's visit, and that the present one was probably the work of King Stephen. Mr. Smirke correctively adds that the Bishop assigns no date to his visit, but merely informs us that he had seen the Table "not long before" he wrote his book, which is dated 1578. The passage shows that the names of Arthur's knights were then inscribed on the circumference of the Table. Mr. Smirke is not aware of any distinct reference to this Table before the reign of Henry VI., or Edward IV., when the poetic historian, Hardyng, who lived in both reigns, alludes to the Table of Arthur as “hanging yet” at Winchester; but it is somewhat unfortunate for the history of the Table, that the verse which mentions it is not to be found in the earliest manuscript copy of Hardyng. Giovio, usually called Paulus Jovius, in a passage referred informs us that the Table was shown to to in Warton's Description of Winchester, Charles V. on his then recent visit to having been corroded by decay, had been restored unskillfully and with so little respect for the venerable antiquity of the original work, as almost to impair its character of genuineness. Jovius is, for various reasons, not likely to have been himself at Winchester during the visit of the Emperor in 1522, yet his account is probably correct; for the Table had certainly been repaired not long before that year, as we learn from the entry in the foreign accounts of Henry VIII. of £66 16s. 11d. for the repair of the “aula regis infra castrum de Wynchestre et le Round Tabyll ibidem." A Spanish writer who was present at the marriage of Philip and Mary, is the first Mr. Smirke knows of, who describes, or intends to describe, with some minuteness, the painting on this Table; the author is Diego de Vero, and the passage in a MS. in the Royal Library at Madrid, is as follows:-" Lors du mariage de Philip II. avec la reine Marie, on montrait encore à Hunscrit la table ronde fabriquée par Merlin: elle se composait de 25 compartemens teintés en blanc, et en vert, lesquels se terminaient en pointe au milieu, et allaient s'élargissant, jusqu'à la circonférence, appelé place de Judas, ou siége périlleux, restait toujours vide." The description is certainly not quite accurate, unless the painting has been altered since; and the name of Hunscrit is a greater departure from the orthography of the word Winchester or Hampshire, than is usually permitted even to a foreign writer. Yet, when it is recollected that the occasion on which the writer saw it was an event which certainly took place in Winchester, can it be doubted that he spake of this Hall and Table? To what period the identical names now on it are to be referred, Mr. Smirke leaves those to decide whose critical acquaintance with the cycle of the Round Table Romances will enable them to state the source from which the names are borrowed. But there is no doubt that, whatever retouching it may have undergone, (especially in the royal figure, which Mr. Smirke believes to have been repainted within the time of living memory,) the form of the letters, and general decorations of the Table, even if we had no extrinsic evidence, would indicate a date not later, nor much earlier, than the reign of Henry VIII. It was then that the black letter, approaching the time of its disappearance from inscriptions and architectural legends, began to grow fanciful and extravagant in its forms. We may here interpolate, that the Table consists of a circle, divided into twentyfive green and white compartments, radiating from the center, which is a large double rose. In the middle of the upper half of the circle, resting upon the rose, and extending to the double edge, is a canopied niche, in which is painted a regal figure, bearing the orb and sword, and wearing the royal crown: this is reputed to represent King Arthur; and the modern reparations in the rose and the crown have been attempts, with more or less success, to adhere to the original design. Around the center rose is a circle inscribed with black letter, except where it is broken by the base of the niche and the sitting king. There are also names inscribed on six of the white compartments, as well as in the circle around the compartments, of which, however, this circle is rather a continuation, in color and form corresponding to the several divisions, each bearing a name. Aubrey, by the way, reports that, in his time, the name of Sir Gawain was in the "limbe" of the Round Table in the "Castle Hall." Ashmole, in his History of the Order of the Garter, published shortly after the Restoration, speaks of the Table as having "no show of antiquity," and as having been "broken to pieces (being before half ruined through age) by the Parliament's soldiers in the beginning of the late war." If Ashmole's account be literally true, the identity of the Table is in danger, and we must assign a very late date both to the fabric and the superficial embellishment; but it would seem that he spoke carelessly, and from report only. Still, whatever be the date of this identical Table and its painting, there is reason to think that, if it be not substantially one transmitted to us from the first renovation of the Hall by Henry III., it is, at all events, a Table of ancient lineage, the surviving representative of a very venerable work of art, which once occupied its place. Mr. Smirke adds, that, having met with the entry in the Chancellor's roll, 20 Henry III., of the "Rota Fortunæ," which had then been painted in the gable of the Hall at Winchester, toward the east, he was strongly impressed with the opinion that this wheel of fortune was the predecessor of Arthur's Table; and when he found among the Liberati rolls of the same reign, in the Tower of London, a commission by the king to paint a "mappa mundi” in the same Hall, it occurred to Mr. Smirke that an order to delineate a chart of the world had been figuratively executed by painting an emblem of its vicissitudes. The pagan goddess was, indeed, a favorite with our Christian ancestors, and familiar to them long before this Hall was built; and the form has been correctly described as "a large wheel, with a crowned female in the center, some rising, others falling from it." There are also various examples of it in churches, both at home and abroad. The conversion of such a wheel into the subject now painted on the Round Table, was obvious and easy. Fortune, by a revolution of her own wheel, might have been deposed, and Arthur made to reign in her stead. Unfortunately for this theory, Mr. Smirke found, on examination, that the order to paint the map of the world was issued three years, at least, after the wheel of fortune had been painted. It is, therefore, clear that, though this wheel may have been the foundation of the present picture, it could not have been painted in pursuance of the order to execute a "mappa mundi." In what form, then, was this second order complied with? and where is the "mappa mundi to be found? A recent publication of the Camden Society appears, at first sight, to supply an answer to these questions. In the Thornton romance of Sir Degrevaunt, we are told that, in consequence of his valor and merit, he was made by King Arthur a Knight of the Round Table; and the poet vouches the " mappa mundi" in proof of the fact: |