To save repetition as much as possible, I may say that a perusal of the consular reports herewith submitted forces the painful impression upon the mind that low wages, enforced idleness, dear and scanty food, make the laborer's life, in a majority of the countries of Europe, a continual struggle with absolute want. No American laborer or capitalist can read these reports without a feeling of the utmost commiseration for the toiling millions of Europe, and of heartfelt pride in, and appreciation of the blessings which Heaven, through a free government, has vouchsafed to the people of the United States. BELGIUM. Taking areas and populations into consideration, there is, perhaps, no other country in Europe whose labor statistics present so condensed a field for investigation, or whose workingmen have so clearly accepted their situation-putting their patient industry, and even continuity, against the almost limitless capital and capacity, but less reliable labor, of their more powerful neighbors-as those of Belgium. Contentment among her working people, a fixed principle of living within their means, and a feeling of reciprocity between the employer and the employé, have made Belgium an important power in the commercial and manufacturing world. Perhaps necessity compels this mutual understanding, for it is only thereby that Belgian manufacturers are enabled to compete with English, French, and German manufacturers in foreign markets, and give employment to their workingmen. A few years of misunderstandings between capitalists and laborers, such as periodically convulse England, would paralyze Belgium and ruin both employers and employés. Therefore, the great wisdom displayed by the Belgian workingmen in accepting their peculiar situation is worthy of the highest commendation; whether this has been learned of necessity or whether it has been reached through a more patriotic channel, is of minor consequence. Such is the reciprocity of feeling between capitalist and laborer, that manufactories or workshops are scarcely ever closed; the employers, in the dullest of times, preferring to run them even at a loss, rather than throw their employés out of work; and the latter, under such circumstances, cheerfully complying with a reduction in hours and wages, cutting down their already bare necessaries of life to tide over the dark hour, confident that when better times return their full time and wages will be again restored. It must not be understood from this pleasing picture that the working people of Belgium are better off than their neighbors. On the contrary, their lives are continual struggles for meager subsistence, and nothing but that spirit of patience, kindness, and fortitude, which enables them to practice the severest economy, makes it possible for them to subsist themselves and supply the necessaries of life to their families. At the very best, the lot of the workingmen of Belgium is hard and unremitting toil, an unceasing battle with most adverse circumstances, but it would be immeasurably worse were they to resort to strikes and violence to better their condition; indeed, were it not for the reciprocal feeling which unites laborer and capitalist, Belgium would be scarcely known as a commercial or manufacturing country. Rates of wages.-That you may be enabled to compare the rates of wages in Belgium with the rates in the United States, I herewith give a list of wages paid certain trades in Brussels and the rates paid to similar trades in New York and Chicago:* It will be seen by the foregoing statement that the mechanics of Brussels do not receive anything like one-half the wages received by the mechanics of New York and Chicago. To enable you to carry the comparison further, let me submit a statement showing the prices of the necessaries of life in both countries. I regret that the Belgian reports do not enable me to present as extended a list of articles as might be desirable, but the few articles given will enable you to apply the comparative rule to those not given: Prices of the necessaries of life in Belgium and in the United States. The foregoing statements show that while the Belgian workingman does not receive one-half the wages of the American workingman, the former pays more for the necessaries of life than the latter. According to the report from Brussels, it appears that while the rates of wages in the mechanical industries have fallen off 25 per cent. during the last seven years, agricultural wages have been steadily on the increase. This has been due to the great development in manufactures, and to that desire, which seems to pervade all peoples more or less, for the excitement of city life, which continually draws off agricultural labor. The consul at Ghent gives the rates of wages paid to agricultural laborers as from 17 to 20 cents per day to men, and from 15 to 17 cents *For an explanation as to the sources of information which has enabled the Secre tary to give the rates of wages and prices of the necessaries of life in New York and Chicago in the comparative forms in which they are used throughout this letter, see introduction to Appendix. per day to women, and their food. When hired as servants, with food and lodging, they are paid $1.75 to $2 per month. The consul at Brussels notes, as a consequence of the scarcity of agricultural laborers, that a man who is willing to remain upon strictly agricultural lands will receive from 40 to 60 cents per day, without food. A comparison of the foregoing rates with those paid to agricultural laborers in the United States will result even more favorably to the latter than in the case of mechanics. Habits of the workingmen.-The consul at Ghent writes as follows concerning the habits of the workingmen in his district: About 80,000 of this population (Ghent) are work people employed in the various manufactories situated here. The habits and customs of this large number of work people are particularly noticeable for frugality, exemplary behavior toward their employers and toward each other, and their strict attention to business. Drunkeness is almost entirely unknown among them, and, according to the police reports, charges against them for crimes are very rare. Paper money. The paper money in circulated in Belgium is confined to notes of issue of the National Bank, and is regulated by the law of 1850, which created the bank, and caused the withdrawal of all other circulating notes. For a full explanation of the monetary system of Belgium, I refer you to Consul Wilson's very interesting report thereon. It may be here said, however, that the entire note circulation of the National Bank must be represented by securities which can be readily converted into money, and that the bank is required to keep an amount of coin in its vaults equal to one-third of its note circulation. The notes of this bank are received by the Government for debts due the state, and they are legal tender for all private debts, although they have no forced currency further than that they receive from the foregoing facts. The amount of paper money in circulation at the close of the year 1877 was 342,108,340 francs ($66,000,000), in denominations of 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 franc notes. The bank-note circulation of Belgium is estimated at 661 francs to each inhabitant. According to the tabulated statements accompanying the report from the consul at Brussels, the total coinage of gold and silver of the Belgian mints, from 1832 to 1878, deducting that which has been demonetized, was as follows: Gold, 522,442,520 francs; silver, 527,678,210 francs; but no correct estimate can be arrived at as to how much of this there is in circulation in the country, owing to the fact that Belgian coins circulate in all the countries forming the Latin Union, viz: Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland. Permit me to call your attention to a peculiar fact noted by Consul Wilson, which is, that during the years 1874 and 1875 over 12,992,611 francs' value of United States gold coin was demonetized and converted at the mint at Brussels into Belgian coin. How much of our money was thus converted into Belgian money previous to 1874 the consul had no means of knowing; how much, if any, has been so converted since 1875 the consul does not say. DENMARK. According to the report of the consul at Copenhagen, the present. rates of wages throughout Denmark are from 10 to 15 per cent. less than they were in 1872, while the cost of living is somewhat higher. Agri cultural laborers are paid as follows, computing the daily wages and averaging summer and winter: Men, without board or lodging, per week $1.85 1 00 1 25 72 19 00 Small as are these rates, they must be the maximum, for the consul says that, "as a general rule, farm hands are employed at from $2.16 to $2.70 per month, with board and lodging." This would give an average of only about $31 per annum as the wages of agricultural laborers. The wages paid to the several trades in Copenhagen and the rates paid to similar trades in New York and Chicago will be seen by the following statement: Weekly wages in Copenhagen, New York, and Chicago. The general complaint-running through all these labor reports-of commercial and trade depression, and consequent "hard times," is particularly emphasized by Consul Ryder in regard to the condition of affairs in Denmark. The consul enters at some length into the discussion of what he considers the causes of the depression and the necessary remedies for the prevalent evils. The disease being, however, universal, it may be safely asserted that the remedies therefor must be also universal, and that the restoration of commerce and labor to their former healthy condition must begin with the larger nations and flow outward to the branches, not from the branches to the trunk. Paper money.-The National Bank of Copenhagen is the only bank permitted to issue paper money in Denmark. The notes of this bank are redeemable in gold coin, that being the legal tender; silver being legal tender only to the amount of $5.30. The amount of National Bank notes in circulation on the 30th of April, 1878, was about $17,000,000. The amount of gold and silver coin and bullion held by the bank, on the same date, for the security and redemption of said notes, was about $9,500,000. The amount of gold coin in circulation in the country, including that held by the National Bank, is calculated at about $8,000,000; silver coin, $4,300,000; and copper coin, $134,000. According to treaty stipulations, the coins of Denmark and SwedenNorway circulate in all three countries as legal tenders. FRANCE. There is no country in Europe whose labor habits and systems are more worthy of careful investigation than are those of France. The French working people have, more truly than any other working people, illustrated that commendable phase of political economy-getting the greatest possible result out of the most limited means. They look squarely and sensibly at their capital, and then limit their requirements within that capital; make the most and best of their lot, and fling a halo of sentiment about their lives of toil. For these reasons the work people of France, with as little remuneration and as scanty fare as those of almost any other country-much less than many of their neighborsare the happiest and most contented labor population in Europe. Rates of wages.-Although the reports herewith submitted may not afford in all cases an exactly correct view of the wages prevailing throughout France, in other respects-customs and habits of the people and their modes of living-they will be found full and interesting. In regard to agriculture-the greatest industry in France, comprising 10,000,000 land-owners, over 18,000,000 large and small of the population being engaged therein-the average rate of wages is computed from the reports from Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Lyons, Nice, and St. Etienne. The highest rates in any of these five reports are quoted for Bordeaux and La Rochelle, viz, $3.60 per week for men, without board or lodging; and the lowest from Lyons, $1.75 per week, without board or lodging. The district of the Seine is not included in the rates here given, the agriculturists therein being engaged principally in market-farming for Paris. For this reason the agricultural wages given in the report of the consul-general are exceptionally high, and if given with the five other reports would result in showing an unfair average. The weekly wages, therefore, paid to agricultural laborers throughout France may be set down as follows: Men, without board or lodging.. Women, without board or lodging. $3.15 1 36 1 10 There is scarcely any necessity for saying that the French farm laborer must practice the closest economy to enable him to support himself and family on the foregoing wages. Not only does he do this, but in many cases he saves enough to work himself into independent proprietorship in the land. How this is accomplished must be a matter of such general interest as to excuse a somewhat detailed account thereof. The consul at Bordeaux, department of the Gironde, writes: The farm laborers are frequently economical to avariciousness, and many of them, in the course of time, become quite wealthy proprietors. The consul at La Rochelle, where the French peasant still preserves his primitive manners and rural virtues, says: Upon these wages the agricultural laborer not only supports himself and family, but saves money. The steady increase of wealth and prosperity in the rural districts of this portion of France is a matter of general congratulation among the people themselves. The country is free from tramps. The laborer thrown out of employment, yet always willing to work, at once starts out, with his loaf of bread under his arm and his gourd of sour wine swung over his shoulder, confident of finding employmen promptly. The consul at Lyons writes: I regard the condition of the agricultural classes of the United States as much superior to those of France, and, I may add from observation and study, to those of Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary; yet from the systematic and economic habits of the farmers of France, as a general rule, the French farmer, small as well as large, is better off than his brother agriculturist in the United States. |