broken up; and from that date to the re-establishment of missions in 1862, whatever teaching was carried on was secret and domiciliary. The Government required that all the books which had been distributed by the missionaries should be given up, and very many were thus removed from the hands of the people. One result of the scarcity of books that followed was, that the missionaries found on their return in 1862 that many more persons could read from manuscript than from printed books. In reviewing the work of elementary education as it was carried on during this first period of missionary labours, the principal facts to which one is disposed to give prominence are:

1. That although Arabic characters had been introduced and used in writing Malagasy speech, their use was so limited that the first English missionaries had practically a clear field in which to introduce the Roman characters. They were able, in conjunction with King Radama, to settle for all time that in these characters the vernacular speech should be written; and not only so, but they determined the use of these characters by a phonetic principle, giving to every consonantal and vowel sound, with perhaps two exceptions, its own proper letter. The importance of this to the work of elementary education can scarcely be over-estimated by those who know the comparative difficulty and facility with which English children and Malagasy children respectively learn to read and write in thir own tongue. 2. The scholars were provided and their attendance supervised by government authority after a capricious fashion, with scarcely any deference to the wishes of the parents; and the cost of the schools was borne by the mission aided by voluntary contributions. Such was probably the best possible way of doing the work that was done, but precedents were thereby established which, in this later period of missionary effort, can only with great difficulty be departed from.

3. The work of elementary education was almost entirely confined to Antananarivo and about a hundred villages within a circle of 20 miles' radius.

Second Period: 1862-1868. This opens with the arrival and settlement of missionaries of the L. M. S. at Antananarivo in August and September, 1862. Among these was a trained schoolmaster, Mr. C. H. Stagg, who soon opened a school in a wooden building at Ambodin' Andohalo, on the spot where a central school was first formed in 1824.

Jesuit missionaries also arrived at Antananarivo the same year and started schools; a missionary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel commenced work at Tamatave in August, 1864; missionaries of the Church Missionary Society

established two stations on the east coast at Vòhimàro (Nov. 1864) and Andòvorànto (Nov. 1866); the Norwegian Missionary Society started its mission at Betàfo in North Bètsilèo in 1867; and the Friends' Foreign Mission Association in the same year commenced educational work in Antananarivo in close co-operation with the London Missionary Society.

During this period the missionaries received no help from the native Government in establishing schools or securing scholars; under the Government of Radama II. they enjoyed liberty in the pursuit of their labours, and toleration under the Government of Queen Ràsohèrina. Schools were only established where there were people who wished to have them, and the scholars were children whose parents desired them to be taught.

The following statistics for this period are taken from A Brief Review of the L. M.S. Mission in Madagascar. From 1861 to 1870:

The journey of Queen Rasoherina to the east coast in 1867 was doubtless the cause of the temporary decrease in that year. More would probably have been done by the L. M. S. Missionaries in organising and superintending schools and in training teachers during these years but for the early death of Mr. Stagg in February, 1864. From that time till 1870 the work of training teachers was practically in abeyance.

Third Period: from 1869 to the present time. A decided change in the policy of the rulers of Madagascar towards Christianity, as indicated by a series of very interesting events with which most readers of this magazine are familiar, serves as a suitable starting-point for this period. In September, 1869, it became evident to the people of Imerina that their rulers had publicly renounced the idols and were favourably disposed to the extension of Christianity; and this very naturally caused a change in the disposition of most of the people towards it,from being indifferent, if not hostile, they became inquisitive.

Towards the close of 1869 about 120 natives were sent out from the Christian congregations in Antananarivo to various parts of Imerina to teach what they could of the Fivavahana ('the Praying'). These men started schools and gathered the children into them; and by the close of 1870, as the result of the combined efforts of the foreign missionaries and the native Christians, the number of schools in Imerina had risen from 28

to 359, and the number of scholars from 1735 to 15,837. Such a large numerical increase in less than two years was made possible by the change of policy mentioned above, and is sufficient justification for regarding it as inaugurating a new period in the history of elementary education in this country.

The following is a resumé of circumstances which have all contributed more or less to the great progress, either in quantity or quality or in both, which elementary education has made from 1870 to the present time :

(a) Settlement of missionaries of the London Mission, of the Jesuits, and of the Norwegian Mission, in South Betsileo. (b) Increase of missionaries of the London Mission, of the Friends' Mission, and of the Jesuits, in Imerina. (c) Settlement of missionaries of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Imerina. (d) Settlement of missionaries of the London Mission in Antsihànaka and Ibóina. (e) Training and settlement in various parts of the country of native evangelists or catechists and school teachers. (f) The steps taken by missionaries of various societies, and notably those of the London and the Friends' Missions, to organise their work in elementary education and provide for effective examination of the schools. (g) The spasmodic and irregular, but wellmeant, efforts of the Malagasy Government and officials, by proclamations and speeches and by the registration of scholars, to advance elementary education.

Some may be disposed to question whether elementary education has been advanced by missionaries of any one society invading a part of the country previously occupied by another, and competing with them for the education of the children. It will be seen that I have answered the question affirmatively, but I have no desire to emphasise the affirmation, as I am well aware that competition among foreign missionaries tends to retard the progress of the people towards independence and self-help. None can doubt that the action of the Government and its officials, stimulated by the growth of sentiments favourable to education among the most advanced of the people, has, more than anything else, prepared the way for the great extension of elementary education during the past sixteen years. But this alone would have accomplished little in the absence of the organised work which has been carried on by the various missionary societies within the same period. This organised work divides itself under five heads :-(a) Direct teaching of the missionaries. (b) Training of school teachers. (c) Contribution of the greater portion of the teachers' salaries. (d)

Superintendence and examination of the schools. (e) Preparation and publication of school books.

The action of the Government and its officials has hitherto been confined to the enrolment of scholars, the exertion of an irregular and intermittent pressure on the parents to send their children to school, the expression on various public occasions of the favour with which it regards the educational movement, and the freeing of school teachers from fanompoana.

The Government has not aided in building a single schoolhouse, in training teachers, or in supporting schools; nor has it made any arrangements for raising funds for school purposes by local action of any kind. This statement is not to be understood as implying that the writer thinks the Government should or could have done any of these things. Its hands are often tied from effecting good, possibly mischief also, by the system of fanompoana on which it is based. I distinguish between the action of the Government and the personal interest of the Queen of Madagascar and her Prime Minister in elementary education. The latter finds expression in large contributions to the Palace Church, which supports about a dozen evangelists and school teachers at various centres in Imerina.

Nearly five years ago a new Code of Laws appeared, in which a section was devoted to "Laws relating to Schools in Imerina." I herewith give a summary of the provisions of this section, and after each I state how far these enactments have become operative.

(a) That all children between eight and sixteen years of age shall attend some school, and shall be registered by duly appointed government officers.

(The latter part has been very fairly carried out once, but no effective means is employed to secure the registration of children as soon as they reach school age.)

(b) That any parent or guardian failing to comply with this law shall be fined one dollar, and the child be compelled to attend school.

(No attempt has been made to carry this out in a single instance.)

(c) That, in the first instance, the parents or guardians shall have free choice of the school in which they wish their children to learn, but that afterwards the children shall not be removed to another school unless they have passed the examination required by the Government, and due notice shall have been given to the chief officer of education.

(The first clause was fairly carried out in the registration of 1882; the remainder has only been followed in a few instances.)

(d) That annual examinations in reading, writing, and arithmetic shall be conducted by officers appointed by the Government, and certificates given to the scholars who pass, by which they shall be freed from compulsory attendance at school. (This has not yet been attempted.)

(e) That missionaries and evangelists shall be at liberty to examine schools, but shall be required to give previous notice of such examination to the chief officer of education.

(This has been very generally carried out.)

(ƒ) That examination and a government certificate shall be necessary to an appointment as teacher, and that no teacher, duly appointed, shall be at liberty to give up his teaching without the permission of the Government.

(The Government issues certificates to all who are nominated as school teachers, and requires removals and transferences of teachers to be notified to it, but it has not yet undertaken the examination of teachers.)

(g) That in every village where there is a school, a school agent (màsoivdho, lit. 'eyes behind') shall be appointed to keep an eye on the school and report to the chief officer of education,

(The school agent receives no remuneration, and he finds his own interest better served by maintaining friendly relations with delinquent parents than by informing against them.)

Soon after the promulgation of these laws, officers were sent throughout Imerina to enrol the children of school age, and appoint the school agents. The following numbers are taken from a return made by them in 1882:—

Of the 146,521 scholars, it was estimated that 22,200 were not such as could be required to attend school, thus leaving 124,321 as the number of children in Imerina who should be attending school.