considerable importance, all testifying to the high state of civilization which existed wherever this great people founded colonies.

But it is principally on their northern slopes and in the plains at their base that those splendid cities existed, the ruins of which now excite the wonder and admiration of modern travellers. Bruce visited them a century ago, and made a large number of exquisite drawings of the principal architectural features. These are now in the possession of his descendant Lady Thurlow, by whose permission two of his original sketches were exhibited.

Commencing from Lambessa, a complete chain of these cities extended as far as Tebessa, their order from west to east being as follows:

Lambees (mod. Lambessa), Verecunda (mod. Markouna), Thamugas (mod. Timegad), Mascula (mod. Ain Khenchla), Baghaia (mod. Kast Baghai), and Theveste (mod. Tebessa).

The first two of these are well known to travellers. Thamugas was described by Colonel Playfair in considerable detail. It contains numerous magnificent ruins, the principal of which are a triumphal arch, theatre, forum, capitol, a Byzantine fortress, and a Christian church. The whole surface of the ground is covered with fragments of sculpture and inscriptions, many of the latter quite entire, which prove that the city was founded by Hadrian, and colonized by the veterans of the 30th legion Ulpia after its return from the Parthian war.

Not far from Timegad is the fertile plain of Firis, on the west and south of which are two mountains covered with countless numbers of the most interesting megalithic remains. Their variety is considerable; but the most ordinary type is that of a low circular structure, nearly level with the earth at the upper part of its base, and varying in height on the opposite side, according to the slope of the hill, from 3 to 8 feet. The walls are of rough dry masonry, generally about 6 feet thick; the diameter is from 15 to 30 feet; and each contains a central chamber of irregular shape covered with a single slab of stone. In some places the monuments are close together; in others they are separated by a number of tombs of the ordinary dolmenic type, as if the latter were intended for people of less consideration than those for whom the circular ones were constructed.

The next city is Mascula, now Ain Khenchla, where an attempt has been made at European colonization. The position is well chosen from a sanitary and strategic point of view, but it is rather distant from any place where produce can be sold.

The ruins of Kast Baghai are also interesting; they are close to the diligenceroute from Khenchla to Ain Beida. From the latter place to Tebessa is a day's journey, and here are to be found the finest Roman ruins in the colony. These consist of the ancient citadel restored by Solomon, the successor of Belisarius, who lost his life here. The modern city is built within it; there is a temple of Jupiter nearly complete, a magnificent quadrifrontal triumphal arch, and the ruins of a basilica, subsequently converted into a Christian church.

On the Physical Geography of that part of the Atlantic which lies between 20° N. and 10° S. and extends from 10° to 40° W. By Captain H. TOYNBEE, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., &c., Marine Superintendent of the Metcorological Office.

The paper was accompanied by monthly diagrams, which showed:

1st. The isobaric lines of mean pressure for each '05 of an inch, together with arrows showing the prevailing winds and their force.

2nd. The isothermal lines for every second degree of air-temperature.

3rd. The isothermal lines for every second degree of sea-temperature, together with arrows showing the prevailing currents and their speed in 24 hours.

The author called attention to important facts, relating to atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind, currents, weather, sea, clouds, natural history, earthquakes, &c. The diagrams may be said to give the navigator a monthly picture of the doldrums, clearly showing him how in some months they are wedge-shaped (as remarked by the late Commodore Maury), and enabling him to select the best route

across the equator. They illustrate the action of both air and water when meeting, as is constantly the case with the two trade-winds, and the currents which they produce, showing also how the air as well as water seems to eddy round a point of land from which the main stream is running.

They also illustrate some very sudden changes of temperature in both air and sea, for which the paper endeavours to account.

The paper also gives the specific gravity of the currents due to the N.E. and S.E. trades, as well as that of the Guinea current, which indicates that the latter is a surface back-drift above a colder current.

The district is the birthplace of many West-Indian hurricanes; and the place in which one originated was pointed out on the diagram for August, it having been afterwards traced to the island of St. Thomas. Besides many other allusions to remarkable and unsettled weather, the paper tells of five earthquakes which were experienced by ships in the district, two in 0° 30′ N. and 30° W., three in 1° S. and 20° W.

In the course of the paper frequent allusion was made to swells of the sea which had overrun by many hundreds of miles the winter gales which caused them, and seemed to be related to the rollers experienced at Ascension, St. Helena, and the West Coast of Africa.

The motion of upper clouds in relation to the direction of the winds was frequently remarked upon, their motion showing that the wind of one trade passed above that of the other at their equatorial verge; and, again, that above the southwesterly monsoon, which blows to the northward of the equator in certain months, the clouds very frequently move from the S.E. near the equator, and from the N.E. when further to the north.

Several allusions were made to the red dust which falls on ships at certain seasons, and to the cetacea, land and sea-birds, fish, and insects met with.

The whole paper may be said to be a résumé of a large work about to be published by the Meteorological Office, which is under the superintendence of the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society, and is published in extenso as a non-official paper by that Office.

Changes in the Course of the Oxus. By Major HERBERT WOOD.

Trade-Routes to Western China. By Colonel YULE, C.B.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Address by JAMES HEYWOOD, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pres. Statistical Society, President of the Section.

HAVING had the advantage of a school education in Bristol, I have noticed with interest, in subsequent years, the gradual development of this great city, and of its populous neighbour, Clifton; and I trust that the second visit of the British Association will be productive of benefit to your important district.

Railway communication, free trade, and the reduction of dock-dues have aided in increasing the commerce of this locality. Additional facilities for ocean steamtraffic will be afforded by the new docks alomst completed at the mouth of the river Avon; and fresh storage-room for timber, both by land and water, may also be expected in the same vicinity.

As an example of the utility of a free port, it may be mentioned that large supplies of grain arrive here in screw iron ships from the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. For barley, used for grinding, Bristol has now become the first provincial

market in the empire. The imports of Messrs. Wait and James amounted, in 1874, to between 400,000 and 500,000 quarters of corn; and in one year (1874-75) 8,496,000 bushels of grain were landed in Bristol from foreign ports. The portion of England which may be supplied with grain from Bristol as a centre, extends in some directions for 100 miles.

Sugar-refining forms one of the ancient branches of industry both in Bristol and elsewhere; its extent may be appreciated from the establishment of Messrs. Finzel in this city, where 1200 tons of refined sugar can be turned out in a week.

French fiscal arrangements, however, are not favourable at the present time to the augmentation of British sugar-refineries; and the subject merits the attention of Members of the Economic Section.

Part of the French revenue is derived from taxes on spirits, salt, and sugar consumed in France. The duty levied in France on sugar, according to the 'Times' of the 28th July, 1875, when the sugar is sold for home consumption, equals in amount the value of the sugar.

A sugar is prepared by the French beet-root sugar-makers, looking as if it only contained 80 per cent. of saccharine matter in a given bulk or weight, whilst the sugar really contains 90 per cent. of saccharine matter. The raw sugar is assessed at a quality 10 per cent. below the real standard; and the French sugar-refiner is debited with a duty according to that assessment, and which is not paid.

When the sugar is exported, the actual quality of the sugar is taken, the drawback is set against the duty, and the refiner is paid the duty thus shown to be due to him.

A memorial issued by London sugar refiners shows that in 1873 the quantity of French refined sugar really produced was at least..

and the "legal" equivalent of the refined sugar exported was.. giving an excess over the "legal" quantity of

or about

kilos. 174,859,000

153,185,000 21,674,000 cwts. 413,000

In 1874 the excess over the "legal" equivalent of the refined sugar rose to 25,413,000 kilos., or about 498,000 cwts.

In 1873 the duty on that excess was.

and in 1874 ...

showing an increase of.

or about...

£110,000 sterling.

on

If to this duty on excess, or bounty, amounting in 1874 to 18,800,000 francs per annum, be added the bounty derived from other sources, such as the "détaxe "poudres blanches," the total amount of bounty will be easily raised beyond 20,000,000 francs for sugar.

In English money 18,000,000 francs are equal to £720,000, paid by the French tax-payer to the French sugar-refiner, and with this result: the French sugarrefiner can sell refined sugar in a foreign market, such as England, below cost price.

From the 'Statistical Abstract' it appears that the import of foreign refined sugar and sugar-candy into Great Britain in 1871 was. cwt. 1,460,102 and that it had increased, in 1874, to 2,717,406

The cheapness of refined sugar in Great Britain has augmented the average of consumption from 1 lb. a head in 1860 to 84 lbs. a head in 1874.

Great Britain possesses commercial friends in France among the vine-growers of Bordeaux and Champagne, and the silk-manufacturers of Lyons. These great industries derive no profit either from a heavy tax on sugar consumed in France, or from a bounty enabling a French sugar-refiner to sell sugar in England below cost price. The occasion seems favourable for a remonstrance with the French Government, and for a conference with leading French statesmen connected with interests independent of beet-root sugar.

Beet-root grows admirably in England; and the British sugar-refiner may consider the question of extending in this country a valuable product of home agri

culture.

To conduct a negotiation with France, a knowledge of the French language will be requisite for the Commissioners, whether appointed by private individuals or by the British Government.

It is gratifying to notice that in a recent revision of Bristol charities under the Endowed Schools' Commission, French has a place among educational requirements. Thus, in Queen Elizabeth's Hospital, now a boarding-school for 150 boys, after the entrance examination, which comprises reading, easy narrative, writing text-hand, and the first two rules of arithmetic, a scheme of school instruction is given, containing history and geography, as well as English grammar, composition, and literature, the elements of mathematics and natural science, the elements of French or Latin, or both, drawing and class-singing.

A similar entrance examination is arranged for admission into the Red Maids' Boarding-school for eighty girls, in Bristol, the income of which amounts to £4378 a year. In this School, instruction is given to girls in history and geography, English grammar, composition, and literature, the elements of mathematics and natural science, and of French or Latin, or both, drawing and class-singing, domestic economy, and the laws of health, needlework, and (if the Governors think fit) telegraphy, or some other branch of science having a bearing on skilled industry suitable for women.

The examination for admission to the Grammar School is to be graduated according to the age of the Candidate, and is never to fall below the following standardthat is to say, reading, writing from dictation, the first two rules of arithmetic, and the outlines of the geography of England.

The subjects of secular instruction in the Grammar School are to be as follows:the Latin and Greek languages and literatures; the English language and literature; arithmetic and mathematics; history and geography; natural science and, in particular, applied mechanics, chemistry, and experimental physics; French and German; drawing; class singing.

An annual income of £1793 belongs to the Bristol Grammar School; and to this institution, as well as to Queen Elizabeth's Hospital and the Red Maids' School (all three being under the Bristol Municipal Charity Trustees), an augmentation has been arranged from various non-educational charities converted into educational endowments, of a capital sum of £14,500.

New buildings for 400 scholars are to be erected for the Grammar School, including a day- and boarding-school.

Colston's Hospital is a boarding-school for 100 boys, into which no boy is to be admitted under the age of ten years; and the scholars are not to remain after they are fifteen years of age. The examination for the admission of paying scholars comprises reading easy narrative, writing text-hand, and easy sums in the first two rules of arithmetic, and the multiplication-table. The Governors may raise the minimum standard from time to time if they deem it advantageous for the School to do so.

The subjects of secular instruction in Colston's boarding-school are arranged as follows:-reading and spelling, writing, arithmetic, and elementary mathematics; English grammar, composition, and literature; French or Latin, or both; the outlines of history; geography, political and physical; natural science; drawing and vocal music.

There will be two classes of scholars, foundationers and paying scholars. The foundationers in the boarding-school must have attended an elementary school regularly for a year preceding their application. They will be elected in order of merit, as tested in competitive examination for boys between ten and eleven years of age in the subjects of Standard IV. (Code 1875), as follows:

"To read with intelligence a few lines of poetry selected by the Inspector, and to recite from memory fifty lines of poetry.

"To write eight lines slowly dictated once from a reading-book, and to show copy-books in improved small hand.

"Compound rules of arithmetic (common weights and measures)."

A note is appended to the table of standards of examination in the new code of regulations, according to the Minute of the Committee of Council on Education,' 5th April, 1875, respecting the 4th Standard, that the "weights and measures taught in public elementary schools should be Avoirdupois weight, long measure,

liquid measures, time-table, square and cubical measures, and any measure connected with the industrial occupation of the district.

Bristol, from its geographical position, seems especially adapted for trade with the western part of the continent of Europe, where the metric system of weights and measures is now universally in use. Through various treaties of commerce British trade is rapidly increasing with countries employing that simple and easy mode of calculating measures and weights; and as a permissive Act of Parliament of 1864 sanctions the metric system in Great Britain and Ireland, it may be expedient for the Governors of Colston's boarding-school to consider if some knowledge of the tables of metric weights and measures may not be desirable for the foundationers of that venerable institution.

The competitive examination in Colston's boarding-school is arranged in the subjects of Standard V. of the Educational Code for boys between eleven and twelve years of age, as follows:

"Improved reading; and recitation of not less than seventy-five lines of poetry.

"Writing from memory the substance of a short story read out twice. Spelling, grammar, and handwriting to be considered.

"Practice, bills of parcels, and simple proportion."

The examination for admission to Colston's Girls' School is not to fall below the minimum standard for admission to Colston's Hospital.

The subjects of secular instruction are to be as follows:-Reading and spelling, writing, arithmetic or elementary mathematics; English grammar, composition, and literature; French or Latin, or both; the outlines of history; geography, political and physical; drawing and vocal music; household management; laws of health; and needlework.

the

Besides the endowed schools of Bristol, Clifton College, in the immediate neigh bourhood, founded in 1861, comprises 500 boys, in addition to whom there are 45 boys in the preparatory school of that College.

As soon as the boys of Clifton College reach the fifth form, they can enter either on the Classical or on the Modern side; but those who are not in the College are required to pass a preliminary examination.

In Clifton College instruction is given to boys intended for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, or the Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, or the profession of Civil Engineering; and a system of education is carried on suitable for students intended for either Oxford or Cambridge.

The Cathedral of Bristol assists in the establishment of a training College for the education of superior teachers; and for this institution the Ecclesiastical Commissioners provide a capital sum of £12,000.

An entrance examination is arranged for admission into the Training College, comprising English grammar and composition, arithmetic, geography, and English history. Afterwards another examination is held, in which each Candidate is expected to pass in at least two of the following subjects:

Divinity, English literature, Latin, one modern language, mathematics, and one branch of natural science.

No student is to be admitted until he has attained the age of 17 years. Candidates may, if the Governors think fit, be admitted into the College without passing the examination for admission, if they are graduates of any university in the United Kingdom, or if they have passed the senior local examination of either of the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge, or the Matriculation Examination of the University of London, or if they are holders of any scholarship or exhibition which may be deemed by the Governors an adequate qualification.

The course of general instruction in the Training College has for its main object to illustrate methods of teaching, and the science and history of education, and to qualify the Students to become skilled teachers in higher schools. The course includes