above the water, being still distant thirty or forty yards from the beach, looks around her, and attentively examines the objects on shore. Should she observe nothing likely to disturb her intended operations, she emits a loud, hissing sound, by which such of her many enemies as are unaccustomed to it are startled, and so are apt to remove to another place, although unseen by her. Should she hear any more noise, or perceive any indications of danger, she instantly sinks, and goes off to a considerable distance; but should everything be quiet, she advances slowly towards the beach, crawls over it, her head raised to the full stretch of her neck, and when she has reached a place fitted to her purpose, she gazes all around in silence. Finding all well, she proceeds to form a hole in the sand, which she effects by removing it from under her body with her hind flappers, scooping it out with so much dexterity that the sides seldom, if ever, fall in. The sand is raised alternately with each flapper, as with a large ladle, until it has accumulated behind her, when, supporting herself with her head and forepart on the ground, she, with a spring from each flapper, sends the sand around her, scattering it to the distance of several feet. In this manner the hole is dug to the depth of eighteen inches, or sometimes more than two feet. This labour I have seen performed in the short period of nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped one by one, and disposed in regular layers, to the number of one hundred and fifty, or sometimes nearly two hundred. The whole time spent in this part of the operation may be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes the loose sand back over the eggs, and so levels and smooths the surface that few persons on seeing the spot would imagine that anything had been done to it. This accomplished to her mind, she retreats to the water with all possible dispatch, leaving the hatching of the eggs to the heat of the sand. When a turtle, or loggerhead, for example, is in the act of dropping her eggs, she will not move, although one should go up to her, or even seat himself on her back; for it seems at this moment she finds it necessary to proceed at all events, and is unable to intermit her labour. The moment it is finished, however, off she starts; nor would it then be possible for one, unless he were as strong as Hercules, to turn her over and secure her.”

Tortoises generally are remarkable for tenacity of life. According to Sir E. Tennant, turtles are sold piecemeal while still alive in the market-place of Jaffna. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteen inches long, is first inserted at the left side of the turtle, and the operators, generally women, introduce one hand to scoop out the blood, which oozes freely. The blade is next passed round till the lower shell is detached, and placed on one side, when the internal organs are exposed to view in full action. As every customer chooses the part he prefers, and pays for it by weight, each of the fins is successively removed, with the selected portions of the fat and flesh; while the turtle shows by its contortions that every act of severance is productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours writhing in the sun, the heart and the head being usually the last portions selected, and till the latter is cut off, the snapping of the mouth, and the opening and closing of the eyes, prove, even when the shell is nearly divested of its contents, that life is still inherent. Redi, among other cruel experiments, removed every particle of brain from a land tortoise, in the beginning of November, yet it lived on till the beginning of May. On another occasion, he cut off the head of one of these creatures, and when, twelve days afterwards, he opened the body, he saw the heart beating, and the blood enter and leave it.

THE HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE.*

THIS species has the carapace large, depressed, somewhat heart-shaped, and covered with broad scales, overlaying each other. These are thick and firm, of a yellowish colour, variously stained, and marked with brown: the vertebral row are keeled, and have a raised central line.

The vertebral and costal scales of the carapace of the Hawk's-bill Turtle are thirteen in number, and instead of being united edge to edge, are imbricated-in other words, the anterior scales largely overlay the next in succession, like tiles on a house; but the part of each that overlays the next is thinner than the part adherent to the osseous framework of the carapace, and terminates in a rather sharp edge, so that the general surface is smooth. These are the valued parts of the animal. As the shell, in its original condition, is in plates, the question arises, How can various articles be made of that which appears to be cut out of a solid body? To this a satisfactory answer is given by MM. Dumeril and Bibron. They remark :-"The substance of the scale, considered as rough material, is unfortunately brittle, and liable to split; on the other hand, it possesses the most valuable properties.

VOL. IV.

* Chelonia imbricata.

3

The fineness of its texture, its compactness, the admirable polish, and the carving which it is capable of receiving; the facility with which it may be moulded, its fragments soldered together, melted, or amalgamated by the aid of powder of the same material-these qualities give to it its value.

"The scales of the turtle in question, when detached from the carapace, are bent in different ways; their thickness, besides, is not uniform, and often it happens that they are too thin, at least throughout a great portion of their substance.

"In order to straighten them, it is sufficient to steep them in boiling water for a few minutes, and then take them out, and place them between plates of metal, or smooth blocks of hard wood, leaving them to cool; great pressure being applied at the same time. They then retain the flatness desired. They are next scraped and filed; a smooth surface being obtained with as little loss as possible. When these shells, or scales, are brought to a proper thickness and size, they may then be used separately; but they are generally submitted to a still further preparation. When, for instance, they are too thin, or when they are not sufficiently long, or broad, the following processes are employed. In order to obtain single plates of great size, two are soldered together, the thin part of one being laid upon the

thin part of the other; or, as is sometimes done, the edges of each plate are delicately bevelled, and fitted together. In each case, they are then put between metallic plates; to these a certain degree of pressure is given, which, when the whole is plunged into boiling water, is increased; and by this mode, they are so intimately joined together, that the slightest trace of their union cannot be detected.

"It is almost exclusively by the means of boiling water, that the effects upon tortoise-shell are obtained. The substance of the scales becomes so softened by the action of the heat, that it may be acted upon like a soft mass, or a flexible and ductile paste, which, by pressure in metallic moulds, will assume every variety of form required.

"The soldering of two pieces together is effected by means of hot pincers, which, while they com press, at the same time soften the opposed edges of each piece, and amalgamate them into one. No portion of the scales is worthless; the raspings and powder produced by the file, mixed with small, fragments, are put into moulds, and subjected to the action of boiling water, and thus made into plates of the desired thickness, or into various articles, which appear cut out of a solid block."

To capture turtles, the practice is, to watch the females as they emerge from the sea to deposit their eggs, and then turn them on their backs on the high and dry sand, where they remain, absolutely helpless, till their captors fetch them at pleasure. When turtles lie floating in the sea, either to respire:

or to sleep, the turtle-fishers approach them quietly with a sharp harpoon, carrying a ring at the buttend, to which a cord is attached. The harpooner strikes, and the animal dives-only, however, to be secured by the cord.

Another method is adopted at Keeling Island, of which Mr. Darwin says:-"I accompanied Captain Fitzroy to an island at the head of the lagoon: the channel was exceedingly intricate, winding through fields of delicately-branched corals. We saw several turtles, and two boats were then employed

in catching them. The method is rather curious: the water is so clear and shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, yet in a canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers, after no very long chase, come up to it. A man standing ready in the bows at this moment dashes through the water upon the turtle's back; then clinging with both hands by the neck, he is carried away till the animal becomes exhausted, and is secured. It was quite an interesting chase to see the boats thus doubling about, and the men dashing into the water, trying to seize their prey."

SAURIANS, OR LIZARD-LIKE REPTILES. *

In most of the Sauria, or Lizards, the body is so remarkable for its length and cylindrical figure, that, as Aristotle has observed, they resemble snakes with the addition of limbs. "Among all the reptiles," says M. Bibron, "these alone, undoubtedly, approach the nearest to mammalia, both in the variety and rapidity of their different movements, especially if we compare their progression with that of tortoises. There are, indeed, among the sauria, species which enjoy many modes of progression; for they can creep, walk, run, climb, swim, dive, and even fly.

"Nevertheless, the elongated and heavy trunk of these reptiles is not supported by the limbs without effort; they walk, in general, with constraint and slowly, for the arms and thighs are short, slender, but slightly muscular, and directed outwardly; while the elbows and knees are too angular to support with ease the superincumbent weight. Still, however, notwithstanding this conformation, so faulty in appearance (though not so in reality), they are capable of executing a great variety of movements, all bearing upon progression." The form of the tail, the length of the body, the conformation of the toes, and the shape of the claws, determine the character of these movements, and harmonise with the general habits of the animal. Thus, for example, palmated feet, or feet which have the toes united together by intervening webs, indicate aquatic habits; and the more so if, in conjunction with this structure of the feet, the tail be laterally compressed, and strongly ridged above-for, thus modified, it is capable of acting the part both of oars and rudder.

+ Sauria.

*

In the animals of the first family, the body in its figure resembles that of a lizard: it is depressed, the back is protected by bucklers, or solid pieces of mail, of an osseous texture, with longitudinal elevated ridges, or by large plates, ridged above, and disposed in longitudinal rows; the sides are covered with small rounded or oval plates; and the under surface is sheathed with square, smooth scaly plates, disposed in transverse rows.

* Crocodilida.

The tail is long, tapering, thick at the base, and compressed at the sides, so as to serve as a paddle. Along its upper surface ridged plates are continued from the back, at first in four rows, which at length merge into a single row of ridges. The sides of the tail are covered with square scales.

The limbs are short. The fore feet have each five distinct toes, of which the two outermost have no nails. The hind feet have four toes, of which the last has no nail; they are partially webbed. The head is flattened above, and the bones, which are rugged, are closely covered with a tough and almost horny skin. This skin is furrowed into compartments, like scales, and it also dips into the winding intervals between the rugosities of the bone, so as to render them visible.

The teeth are numerous, thick, of unequal length, conical in figure, and hollow at the base. They are placed at a distance from each other, the intervals mutually receiving the teeth of the opposite jaw when both are closed.

The eyes are small, but bright; the pupil is linear and vertical. Besides the two external eyelids, there is a third or inner eyelid, a semi-transparent membrane, and is designed to protect the cornea, or surface of the eye, during the animal's submersion. Beneath the throat are two large glands,