ple's Charter. The middle classes were, | however, well satisfied on the whole with the overthrow of the rotten boroughs and the enfranchisement of the large towns, and therefore the Chartists stood alone, and began to regard them with a feeling of hostility. Chartists were sometimes found, as in all other parties, ready to assist the party which differed most widely from them, with the object of thwarting the political objects which the middle classes had at heart. In 1838 they had become a large party and embraced a great number of the working classes employed otherwise than in agriculture. The number of signatures attached to the petition presented at the commencement of the session of 1839 in favour of the People's Charter was upwards of one million and a quarter. Unfortunately the idea began to be entertained amongst a certain class of the Chartists, that physical force might be justifiably resorted to if necessary for obtaining political changes; and the party became divided into the Physical Force Chartists and the Moral Force Chartists. The former became implicated in disturbances which took place at various times in several parts of the country; and many persons of this class never having had correct views respecting the wages of labour, it appeared as if they had adopted the cry of "a fair day's wages for a fair day's work" as an additional point of the People's Charter. The disturbances in 1842 in the midland and northern counties were to some extent encouraged by the less intelligent of the Physical Force Chartists. At the close of 1841, however, an attempt was made to combine the middle classes with the Chartists in their attempt to obtain an extension of the suffrage. Early in 1842 a Complete Suffrage Union was formed at Birmingham, and in April of the same year a Conference, consisting of eighty-seven Delegates, was assembled at Birmingham, which sat for four days; three of which were spent in agreeing upon a basis of union between the middle and working classes, and the last day in adopting plans of practical organization. The six points of the People's Charter were adopted by the Conference, and the

details were left for settlement to a future Conference. It was resolved also at this conference to establish a National Complete Suffrage Union. The proposed National Conference commenced its meetings in December, 1842, and was attended by 374 delegates. Here a rupture took place between the Chartists and the Complete Suffrage party, and the latter were outvoted on the question of adopting the People's Charter instead of the Complete Suffrage Bill. The minority, however, proceeded to act upon their views as developed in the Complete Suffrage Bill. This Bill does not contain any disqualifying clauses. In other respects it differs from the People's Charter only in matters of detail. These are the only two plans connected with the extension of the franchise which are at present supported by any large class in this country. The Chartists and the Complete Suffragists are only nominally distinct parties; but the former may be characterized as possessing a greater hold on the working classes than the Complete Suffragists, whose ranks are chiefly recruited from the middle classes: their objects, however, are so similar, that they may at any time unite without any sacrifice of principle. CHASE. [FOREST.]

CHATTELS (in Law Latin, Catalla). This term comprehends all moveable property, and also all estates in land which are limited to a certain number of years or other determinate time. All moveable goods, as horses, plate, money, and the like, are called Chattels Personal. Estates or interests in land, which are comprehended in the term chattels, are called Chattels Real. "Goods and Chattels" is a common phrase to express all that a man has, except such estates in land as are freehold estates; but the word chattels alone expresses the same thing as "goods and chattels." The word goods is merely a translation of the Latin word Bona, which was used by the Romans to express all property, and generally all that a man was in any way entitled to. (Dig. 50, tit. 16, s. 49.) The nature of personal property in England is further considered under PROPERTY. Chattels of each description pass to the personal representatives of the deceased proprietor, and are

comprehended under the general term "Personal Property." The law as to chattels is now, owing to the great increase of wealth, and particularly of moveables, of equal importance with the law relating to land; but under the strict feudal system, and the laws to which it more immediately gave rise, chattels (including even terms for years) were considered of small importance in a legal point of view, and, indeed, prior to the reign of Henry VI., were rarely mentioned in the law treatises and reports of the day. (Reeve, Hist. Eng. Law, 369.) Many articles which are properly chattels, owing to their intimate connexion with other property of a freehold nature, and being necessary to its enjoyment, descend therewith to the heir, and are not treated as chattels. Thus, for instance, the muniments of title to an estate of inheritance, growing trees and grass, deer in a park, nd such fixtures as cannot be removed .rom the freehold without injury to it, are not chattels, because they pass to the heir. In the hands of a person however who has a limited interest in such things they become his chattels, and pass to his executor. Chattels, except so far as they may be heir-looms, cannot be entailed, though they may be limited so as to vest within twenty-one years after the death of a person or persons in being. They are not within the Statute of Uses, inasmuch as the proprietor of a chattel is said to be possessed of it, not seised, which is the word used in that statute. The same forms were not required in passing a chattel by devise, as in the case of real property, and a will of chattels might also be made at an earlier age than one which disposed of real estate; at fourteen years of age by a male, and twelve by a female. But this is now altered by 1 Vict. c. 26, and no person under twentyone years of age can now dispose of any thing by will. Chattels do not go in succession to a corporation sole, except only in the cases of the king and the chamberlain of the city of London. (Co. Litt.; Blackstone, Comm.)

CHEQUE, an order on a banker by a person who has money in the bank, directing him to pay a certain sum of money to the bearer or to a person named in the

cheque, which is signed by the drawer. Cheques are immediately payable on presentment. They are not liable to stamp-duty, and are therefore limited in their functions in order to prevent their circulating as bills of exchange. They must, for example, be payable on demand, without any days of grace, and must be drawn on a banker within fifteen miles of the place where they are issued. The place of issue must therefore be named, and they must bear date on the day of issue. A cheque should be presented on the day which it is received, or within a reasonable time. One of the first rules to be observed in writing a cheque is to draw it in a business-like manner, so as to prevent a fraudulent alteration in the amount, for if otherwise the drawer may be liable. A "crossed" cheque is an ordinary cheque with the name of a particular banker written across the face of it for security, or it may be crossed simply "& Co."; and in this case it will only be paid through that banker. If presented by any other person, it is not paid without further inquiry. The Bankers' Magazine' for Oct. and Nov. 1844, and Jan. and Feb. 1845, contains some valuable information on the Law of Cheques.

One of the great advantages of a banking account is the convenience of drawing cheques. A person is thus relieved of the necessity of keeping ready money in his hands, and a cheque is some evidence of payment in the absence of a proper receipt. The Bank of England allows cheques to be drawn for sums of 5l., but a few years ago it allowed no cheques under 10l.

CHICORY. [ADULTERATION.] CHIEF JUSTICE. [COURTS.] CHILD-KILLING. [INFANTICIDE.] CHILD-STEALING. [ABDUCTION.] CHILTERN HUNDREDS. A portion of the high land of Buckinghamshire is known by the name of the Chiltern Hills. "Formerly these hills abounded in timber, especially beech, and afforded shelter to numerous banditti. To put these down, and to protect the inhabitants of the neighbouring parts from their depredations, an officer was appointed under the crown, called the steward of the Chiltern Hundreds." (Geog. of Great Britain,

by the Society for the Diffusion of Use- | ful Knowledge.) The duties have long since ceased, but the nominal office is retained to serve a particular purpose. A member of the House of Commons, who is not in any respect disqualified, cannot resign his seat. A member therefore who wishes to resign, accomplishes his object by applying for the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough, and Bodenham, which, being held to be a place of honour and profit under the crown, vacates the seat, and a new writ is in consequence ordered. This nominal place is in the gift of the chancellor of the exchequer. As soon as the office is obtained it is resigned, that it may serve the same purpose again. Another office which is applied for under similar circumstances, is the stewardship of the manors of East Hendred, Northstead, and Hempholme. The offices which have been held to vacate seats may be collected from the several General Journal Indexes, tit. "Elections."

In the session of 1842 a committee of the House of Commons was appointed "to inquire whether certain corrupt compromises had been entered into in specified boroughs, for the purpose of avoiding investigation into gross bribery, alleged to have been practised in them;" and a member for one of these boroughs (Reading) having applied to the chancellor of the exchequer, requesting that the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds might be conferred on him, the chancellor of the exchequer, who anticipated similar applications from members of some of the other boroughs implicated, decided upon refusing the appointment. The reasons he alleged for this refusal, in a letter addressed to the member for Reading, were as follows:-" Under ordinary circumstances I should not feel justified in availing myself of the discretion vested in me in order to refuse or delay the appointment for which you have applied, when sought for with a view to the resignation of a seat in parliament. But after the disclosures which have taken place with respect to certain boroughs, of which Reading is one, and after the admission of the facts by the parties interested, I consider that by

lending my assistance to the fulfilment of any engagement which may have been entered into as arising out of any such compromise, I should, in some sort, make myself a party to transactions which I do not approve, and of which the House of Commons has implied its condemnation. I feel, moreover, that by a refusal on my part of the means by which alone such engagements can be fulfilled, I afford the most effectual discouragement to the entering into similar compromises in future, and thus promote, so far as is in my power, the intentions of the House of Commons."

CHIMNEY SWEEPER, a person whose trade it is to cleanse foul chimneys from soot. The actual sweepers were formerly boys, of very tender age, who were taught to climb the flues, and who, from the cruelties often practised upon them by their masters, had for the last half-century become objects of particular care with the legislature. The first and chief act by which regulations concerning them were enforced was the 28 Geo. III. c. 48. In 1834 the act 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 35, was passed for the better regulation of Chimney-sweepers and their Apprentices, and for the safer Construction of Chimneys and Flues. From that date no child who was under ten years of age could be apprenticed to a chimneysweeper. A particular form of indenture of apprenticeship is required in the case of chimney-sweeps. In 1840 another act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 85) was passed, 7th August, for the regulation of chimney-sweepers and chimneys. This act annulled existing indentures of chimney-sweepers' apprenticeship, where the apprentice was under sixteen, and prohibited in future the binding of any child under that age. Any person who compels, or knowingly allows, any young person under the age of twentyone, to ascend or descend a chimney, or enter a flue, for the purpose of sweeping or extinguishing fire, is liable, under this act, to a penalty not exceeding 10l. and not less than 57. That part of the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85, which related to chimneys is repealed by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (the Metropolitan Buildings Act), which substitutes new regulations as to the dimensions and construction of chimneys.

The number of persons returned as chimney-sweepers in 1841 was 4620 in England, 56 in Wales, and 331 in Scotland. Two-fifths (1974) were under twenty years of age.

About the beginning of the present century, a number of individuals joined in offering considerable premiums to any one who would invent a method of cleansing chimneys by mechanical means, so as to supersede the necessity for climbingboys. Various inventions were in consequence produced, of which the most successful was that by Mr. George Smart. The principal parts of the machine are a brush, some hollow tubes which fasten into each other by means of brass sockets, and a cord for connecting the whole. CHIVALRY, COURT OF. [COURTS.] CHURCH BRIEF. [BRIEF.] CHURCH-RATES are rates raised, by resolutions of a majority of the parishioners in vestry assembled, from the parishioners and occupiers of land within a parish, for the purpose of repairing, maintaining, and restoring the body of the church and the belfry, the churchyard fence, the bells, seats, and ornaments, and of defraying the expenses attending the service of the church. The spire or tower is considered part of the church. The duty of repairing and rebuilding the chancel lies on the rector or vicar, or both together, in proportion to their benefices, where there are both in the same church. But by custom it may be left to the parishioners to repair the chancel, and in London there is a general custom to that effect.

The burden of repairing the church was anciently charged upon tithes, which were divided into three portions, one for the repair of the church, one for the poor, and one for the ministers of the church. Pope Gregory had enjoined on St. Augustine such a distribution of the voluntary offerings made to his missionary church in England; and when Christianity came to be established through the land, and parish churches generally erected, and when the payment of tithes was exacted, the tithes were ordered to be distributed on Pope Gregory's plan. Thus, one of Archbishop Ælfric's canons, made in the year 970, is as follows:

"The holy fathers have also appointed that men should give their tithes to the church of God, and the priests should come and divide them into three parts, one for the repair of the church, and the second for the poor, but the third for the ministers of God, who bear the care of that church." (Wilkins, Concilia, i. 253.) The same division of tithes was enacted by King Ethelred and his councillors in Witenagemot assembled, in the year 1014. A portion of the fines paid to churches in the Anglo-Saxon times for offences committed within their jurisdictions was also devoted to church repairs. The bishops were likewise required to contribute from their own possessions to the repair of their own churches. A decree of King Edmund and his councillors, in 940, headed "Of the repairing of churches," says that "Each bishop shall repair God's house out of what belongs to him, and shall also admonish the king to see that all God's churches be well provided, as is necessary for us all." (Schmid, Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen, i. 94.) One of King Canute's laws says, "All people shall rightly assist in repairing the church;" but in what way it is not said. There is no pretence however for interpreting this law of Canute's as referring to anything like church-rate. A payment to the Anglo-Saxon church, called cyric-sceat (church scot), has been erroneously identified with church-rate by some writers. This was a payment of the first-fruits of corn-seed every St. Martin's day (November 11), so much for every hide of land, to the church; and the laws of King Edgar and King Canute direct all cyric-sceat to be paid to the old minster. (Schmid, i. 99, 165.) Cyric-sceat was otherwise called cyricamber, amber being the measure of payment.

Churches continued to be repaired with a third of the tithes after the Norman conquest, and to as late as the middle of the thirteenth century. How the burden came to be shifted from the tithes to the parishioners is involved in much obscurity. The following conjectural sketch of the rise of church-rates is from a pamphlet by Lord Campbell:-" Probably the burden was very gradually shifted to