As regards history, who were the people whom Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, Cortez, Almagro, and Pizarro found in the New World? In Brazil, the Tapayas or Tabaiaras claim attention for their resemblance to the Mongols in the colour of their skin and the form of their features, and the Tupis or Tupinambas for a Caucasian physiognomy. In Columbia, the Caribs or Caraïbs are cannibal hordes who inhabit the vast plains of the Caraccas, of Cumana, of Apure, and the Orinoco; they subsist by fishing and hunting, and on such wild fruits as they can gather. There are the Moscas or Muyscas of the plateau of Bogotá; in Guiana the Galibis; in Florida the Apalaches, who derive their name from the mountains of their country; the Natchez, on the banks of the Missouri and the Ohio; the Hurons, the Algonquins, the Iroquois, and the Altekamocs, in Canada; the Osages, the Delawares or Abenaco, in Louisiana; the unconquerable Araucaños, in Chile, whose last chief scarcely a year ago was one of our adventurous countrymen; the Charruas, the Guaranis, the Abipones, and the other tribes of Paraguay and of Buenos Ayres; the Aucas and the Puelches of Patagonia; the Fuegians of Tierra del Fuego; the Malouins and the other islanders; the Changuenes of Costa Rica, the Mosquitos, the Zambos, and the Poyais of Guatemala; the Quichuas, the Atacamas, the Yuaracaris, the Apolistas of Peru; the Tepanecs, the Olmecs, the Aztecs, the Toltecs, the Chichimecs, and the Xicalancs of Mexico. These are the principal peoples which were vanquished by the invading and conquering Europeans. What do we know of their history? Nothing more than some few characteristic facts, some unconnected episodes, some details more or less fabulous, to be found scattered in the histories of Ixtlixochitl, of Tezozomoc, of Balboa, of Zurita, or of Montesinos. Thus, for instance, we read of the foundation of the Peruvian city of Cuzco, by Manco-Capac I, who flourished about 2,900 years before Christ; of the establishment by him of the first Peruvian government; and further, of the great wars of Sinchiroca, one of his successors, against the princes of Antigmalas. Under the reign of Ayar-tarco-Cupo (about 4,000 years before Christ), we hear of the appearance of giants, and of the subsequent wars of Titu Yupangui, surnamed the happy or Pachacuti, against the Chimos. Then follows the downfall of the first religion under CaoManco, and its re-establishment by his successor Marasco, also surnamed Pachacuti (about 1,166 B.C.), the end of the first Peruvian dynasty consisting of thirty-two kings, 880 years before Christ; and about the same epoch the establishment of the second dynasty. We now come to the valuable astronomical discoveries of the learned kings Ayay-Manco, Capac-Rami-Amanta, and Toca-Corca-Apu capac; the first of whom reformed the Calendar, and introduced the intercalary days; and the second invented the scale of the solar hours; while the last discovered the equinoxes, divided the year into four seasons, and founded, it is said, the University of Cuzco. The appearance of many frightful comets in the reign of Huamantaco-Amanta presaged the dreadful wars and revolutions which distinguished the reign of his successor Titu-Yupangui Pachacuti VI, a prince contemporary with the Christian era. With regard to the Mexicans, we possess a long list of their sovereigns and kings who reigned during the three following great epochs. First, the appearance of the Chichimecs in Mexico, under the command of their chief Chichimecatl, long before the Christian era. 2nd. The invasion of the Toltecs in the seventh century of the Christian era. 3rd. The overthrow of the Toltecs by the Aztecs in the twelfth century. These are the three great historical epochs, before the conquest of Mexico, but there are long periods to be filled up, ere we can reconstruct the national history of that country. Mexican history becomes of real importance about the beginning of the fourteenth century. The Aztecs, driven out by Tula, took refuge in Anahuac, and restored Tezcuco, which, under the influence of its king, became the resort of all the poets, artists, and men of learning of the period. Remarkable monuments adorned this populous and flourishing city, which subsequent Mexican historians delighted to call the Athens of Anahuac. The Acolhues united to their conquerors, the Chichimecs, and founded a city not less celebrated than that just referred to. It was known at first under the name of Tenochtitlan, and was founded on many low islands connected by solid dykes, and adorned by floating gardens, attached to the four quarters into which it was divided. Disastrous wars broke out between the Chichimecs and the neighbouring tribes; the kings Acamiputzli, Huitztilihuitl, and Itscoatl increased their territories and enslaved the Tlepanecs, after a memorable siege, which recalls that of Troy. The reigns of Montezuma I and of Nezahualtcoyotl are the most illustrious in the annals of Mexico and Tezcuco. Brave and warlike, Montezuma was elected king by the chiefs and princes, and rendered his reign remarkable by constant and successful wars against the revolted inhabitants of Chalcos, Oaxaca, and the Tepanecs. He prevented the inundation of Lake Tezcuco, and enacted many just and benevolent laws. He took the priests under his special protection, and made himself loved and respected by all. Neza. hualtcoyotl, his friend, not less worthy or remarkable, driven at first from his throne by his infuriated enemies, pursued from cave to cave, from mountain to mountain, was at length restored by Itzcoatl, who, touched by his misfortunes and his courage, showed himself as great and generous in prosperity as he had been noble and resigned in adversity. Nezahualtcoyotl executed some very remarkable works, encouraged commerce and agriculture, and published a penal code calculated to reach and punish all misdemeanours. He repressed tyrants and oppressors, and placed the poor under the safeguard of enlightened and impartial justice. Nezahualtcoyotl is the David of Anahuac, and the history of his persecutions, his sufferings, and his providential restoration would form an American Odyssey. Axajacatl, his cousin, and his brothers Tixoc and Ahuitzotl, worthily preserved the sceptre of Montezuma I, and transmitted it formidable and respected to Montezuma II, whose reign, however, was fated to be extinguished by the redoubted and avaricious conquerors from Europe. The sixteenth century opens with Ahuitzotl and Montezuma, who changed the destinies of the Chichimecs and of their vassals or tributaries. These sovereigns brought discovered America into an unforeseen relation with the people of the west, entailing war and oppression on themselves, and on their children abject slavery. From history we proceed to consider the indigenous languages. In Brazil, the three principal languages spoken are the Guarani, Tupi, and Brazilian. They are defective in the sounds f, 1, r, s, and v, as these are found in the Portuguese, and are the three chief dialects of which we have grammars and dictionaries. The Aztec or Mexican is less sonorous than the Incas, as distinguished by the length of its words, the varieties of its meanings, and the absence of superlatives. Among the Toltecs there are few monosyllables, but there are words of not less than sixteen syllables, in which we do not find the consonants b, d, r, g, and s. There are many other languages among the Mexicans, of which fourteen have grammars and dictionaries. These are the Othomi, Taraso, Zapotec, Mystec, Maya (of Yucatan), Totonac, Popoluc, Matlazingue, Huastec, Mixe Catchiquel, Taraumare, Tepehuane, and Core. The Peruvian language is in two divisions, that of the nobles or Incas, a species of masonic language spoken only by persons of the highest rank; and the popular or common tongue used by the lower classes, but known also to the nobles and aristocracy. These indigenous tongues have not been replaced by those of the European conquerors. In Guatemala, says the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, in his History of the Civilised Nations of Mexico, the indigenous language or Maya is used by the Spaniards in preference even to their native tongue. In Mexico the Spanish language has * Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique. not preserved its Castilian purity, for we find words entirely Aztec mixed up with it. We may remark that Latin outlived the eruption of the barbarians, and was preserved for centuries in Gaul, Spain, and Africa, notwithstanding the prevalence of the Frank, Visigoth, Ostrogoth, and Vandal languages. We may infer from the various dialects of Guatemala, says the Dominican Francisco Ximenes, in his Arte de las tres lenguas catchiquel, quiche y tzutuhil, that all are derived from one, which has been corrupted in various ways in different provinces, but the roots of the verbs and the substantives are found for the most part to be the same. This mother tongue is the Maya, according to the learned Dominican and the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, both most competent judges on such a question. Canon Ordoñez inclines to the Tzendal, but this may arise from a natural partiality, this being the native language of the canon. The classification of the indigenous languages of America would be a great service rendered to philology, and would lead us to the study of indigenous literature, sciences, and the fine arts. We must remember that America has a literature of its own, which still remains to be investigated and studied. The Aztecs, says Clavigero, were good poets and distinguished orators. The poets, held in great esteem at Tezcuco and at Tenochtitlan, chose warlike and religious subjects; while the priests, whose minds were more cultivated than the majority of these poets, celebrated the firmament and the heavenly bodies, the feats of kings and of heroes, and the duties and attributes of man. Oratory was much taught among the people, and the young men were early accustomed to take part in discussions on the affairs of the nation. The Aztecs had even a theatre, but their dramatic literature was weak and coarse, and was degraded by foul and brutal exhibitions. M. l'Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg mentions, in terms of the highest commendation, a historical MS., written in the Nahuatl language in 1528, by one of the bravest and most faithful officers of the unfortunate Quahtemotzin.* The epoch of the conquest, followed by the preachings of the missionaries, brought about a new era of revival in the national literature. Several natives taught by the priests, and following the example of Quahtemotzin's officer, began to write their ancient chronicles in the Nahualt language. In 1736, the Chevalier Boturini Benaduci, says M. Aubin in his articlef on "La peinture didactique et la langue idéographique des Aztèques," had made a very remarkable and valua * This MS. is now in the possession of M. Aubin. ble collection of these manuscripts. Unfortunately, on his way back to Italy, he was captured at sea by the English, and plundered of everything. Thus, the fruits of all his labour and research were lost to this intrepid traveller, nor has more than the eighth part of these MSS. been found, and that but recently. Many native and European savants, the Mexican historian Veytia, the American astronomer Gama, Alexandre de Humboldt, TernauxCompans, and others, have endeavoured to repair that immense loss. At last, M. Aubin, after long and patient researches, has succeeded in bringing together a rich and important collection; and, from the indications furnished by the Chevalier Boturini's catalogue, has been able in a great measure to reproduce the precious originals. We may judge of the importance of this new indigenous literature by the mere names of some of these manuscripts, now in the possession of the enlightened and industrious ethnographer whom we have just named. Among these MSS. are the following:-Essays on Mexican history in the Nahuatl language, from the year 1064 to 1521, by Domingo Chimalpaïn.-The historical annals of the Mexican nation in Nahuatl, dated 1528, which is probably the MS. previously mentioned by M. l'Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg.-Several original histories in Nahuatl of the kingdoms of Culhuacan, Mexico, etc., from the most remote period to 1591, by Domingo Chimalpaïn.-And finally, the history of the same kingdoms of Culhuacan and Mexico, by a native author using the nom de plume of Fernando de Alba. There exist also numerous works in Mexican by foreign missionaries, among which we shall notice the translation of the Epistles and of the Gospels in Nahualt by Arnaud de Bassac; The Colloquies of Christian Peace, by Father Juan de Gaona; The Art of the Mexican Language, by Jean Foucher, a Frenchman; together with the learned. and numerous works of Andrès de Olmos in Mexican, Huaztec, Tolonac, and other languages. The indigenous chronicles cited by M. Aubin are generally concise, though they exhibit traces of oral traditions and of historical songs often repeated word for word in the same work. The Peruvians cultivated, also, poetry and the drama, which appear among them to have reached a higher degree of perfection than among the Mexicans. Comedies and tragedies were performed in the presence of the Incas and their courtiers, and were usually heroic, mystic, or warlike. Love was always predominant in Peruvian poetry, and fragments of that poetry are quoted by Father Blas Valera, in his memoirs, as well as by Garcilasso de la Vega. But Peruvian literature, less fortunate than Mexican, is still shrouded under a dark veil. |