clared an article of faith till 1438, in the council of Florence, the authority of which has always been doubtful even among Romanists.

CHAPTER XI.

PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.

A.D. 680-1054.

THE period on which we now enter presents many painful features in the history of the Church. The temptations of heresy had indeed now been almost exhausted; and the human mind, wearied with novelties and dissensions, reposed itself more implicitly on the authority of the Church: but ignorance and barbarism were fast overspreading the traces of ancient civilization, and religion too often became mingled with superstition: The perpetual state of warfare between rival princes, the feebleness of governments, unable to control their powerful and turbulent subjects, caused a general lawlessness and disorder, destructive of those habits which are most congenial to Christianity. Add to this the incursions and ravages of Saracens, Danes, and Normans, which threw all the west of Europe into confusion; the insurrections and inroads of Saxons, Sclavonians, Hungarians, and Turks, which equally disturbed the east and the north; and we may then see the difficulties under which religion laboured, and which were in many respects most injurious to her. But even in these ages we continue to see the fulfilment of our Saviour's promises to his Church. The kingdom of Christ was still expanding itself from the river to the ends of the earth; the tree sprung from a grain of mustard-seed still showed the vigour of its constitution by putting forth new and flourishing branches; and the fruits of the Holy Spirit's influence, the pledge of our Lord's per

petual presence with his body the Church, were abundantly manifested in the midst of many scandals and sins. It may be said with truth, I believe, that the progress of Christianity in the world during these dark ages was scarcely less than during the first three centuries of its existence.

A.D. 732.

A.D. 827.

In the eighth century, the Saracens crossed from Africa into Spain, and having subdued the forces of A.D. 714. Roderic, the last king of the Goths, in a pitched battle, made themselves masters of the whole country. They even threatened France, but were defeated with dreadful slaughter by Charles Martel, and compelled to retire within the limits of Spain. They subdued Sardinia, and ravaged Italy and Sicily (of which last they afterwards took possession) so terribly, that in many places the number of towns was reduced by one half. Christianity, however, subsisted under the dominion of the Saracens in the West, as well as in the East, though much oppression was experienced by believers, and some were even delivered to death for the name of Jesus Christ. But the losses of the Church under the Saracen dominion were counterbalanced by numerous conversions in the north of Europe. Christianity was still spreading amongst the Anglo-Saxons; it was carried far and wide amongst the Thuringians, Frieslanders, and Hessians, in Germany, by St. Boniface, or Winfrid, a monk

A.D. 715-754.

of the order of St. Benedict, and a native of England. Rupert and Corbinian, two French bishops, were invited by Theodo, duke of Bavaria, early in the eighth century, to preach the Gospel in his dominions; and the former baptised that prince, with a large number of his people. Christianity was then established and bishoprics were founded in Bavaria. Firmin preached the Gospel with great zeal in Alsatia, Bavaria, and Switzerland; and Lebuin, a native of England, laboured amongst the Saxons. Carinthia received Christianity from Bavaria, the duke of Carinthia having requested Virgilius, bishop

A.D. 766-780.

of Saltzburg, to send clergy to instruct his people. St. Virgilius, who was a native of Ireland, and remarkable for his learning and piety, afterwards visited Carinthia, and confirmed the new Christians in the faith. In the latter part of the eighth century, the Emperor Charlemagne having conquered the greater part of Germany and Hungary, established churches throughout his dominions, and obliged his subjects to adopt the Christian religion. In the early part of the ninth century, St. Anschar, a monk of Corby in Westphalia, laid the foundations of the Church in Cimbria, Denmark, and Sweden, in which he was assisted by Anthbert, Ebbo, and many other pious missionaries.

The eastern Church was now also engaging in the same holy work. Methodius and Cyril, two Greek monks, converted to Christianity the Mosians, Bulgarians, Gazarians, Bohemians, and Moravians, about the middle of this century; and the Sclavonians, Aretani, and other nations of Dalmatia, having expressed a wish to embrace A.D. 867. the Christian religion, they were instructed and baptised by missionaries from the eastern Church. The vast nations of Russia were also added to the Christian Church in this and the following century; first by the persuasions of the missionaries sent by Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, and afterwards by the example of Wlodimir, the sovereign of Russia, who was baptised in 987. The savage Normans, who had invaded and seized a portion of A.D. 912.

France, now followed the example of their duke Rollo, and embraced the faith; while the conversion of Sweden was completed by Sigfrid; and that of Norway by Guthebald, who went forth on about A.D. 990. this holy mission from the Church of England. Micislaus, duke of Poland, adopted the Christian religion in 995; and his example so wrought on his subjects, that in a few years they professed the faith, and many episcopal sees were founded in that country. Some of the Hungarians were converted and baptised by Hierotheus, a bishop

about A.D. 950.

who was sent to them from Constantinople; but the conversion of that nation is chiefly attributable to the pious zeal of their king Stephen, who having been educated a Christian, resolved to cause his subjects to embrace the true religion; and having subdued a revolt of his pagan subjects, soon after his accession to A.D. 997. the throne, he devoted himself to the propaga tion of the Gospel with earnest prayer and almsgiving; and sending for Christian teachers from the adjoining countries, he encouraged and assisted them so effectually, that idolatry was entirely banished from his dominions, and ten bishops were ordained for the superintendence of the new Churches.

CHAPTER XII.

ON THE FAITH OF THE CHURCH.

A.D. 680-1054.

THAT the faith of Christians during this period did not vary from what it had formerly been, is proved by the universal adoption of the Nicene creed as the rule of faith, and by the veneration felt by all believers for the decrees of the six holy œcumenical synods. The Trinity, incarnation, atonement, the necessity of Divine grace, original sin, the need of good works, and all the other doctrines taught from the beginning by the Church, were still universally believed. We hear little indeed in these ages, comparatively speaking, of heresies: those which did ́appear seem not to have had much influence. The errors concerning our Lord's nature, which were taught by Elipandus in Spain in the eighth cen. tury, and which were connected with the Nestorian heresy, were condemned by the great council of Frankfort in 794, and they disappeared soon afterwards. The doctrines of the Paulicians in the ninth century, and of Be

rengarius* in the eleventh, seem to have obtained but few adherents; and we can scarcely point to any other errors in faith, which were at this time sustained by bodies of men. The same great truths of religion were universally adopted; the same Scriptures were diligently studied by all who had the means of doing so,-for in those days, before the inven tion of printing, when all books were transcribed by manual labour, they were both scarce and expensive; and an universal appeal was made to the sentiments of the ancient fathers and councils in the interpretation of the Bible.

The grand controversy of the eighth century was on a point of Christian morality-the use of images. It is admitted, even by those who approve most highly of their use, that it is no part of Christian duty to possess such memorials ; that there is no injunction to that effect in holy Scripture; and that it would be idolatrous to offer them any adoration, as if they were deities, or to attribute to them any peculiar power in themselves. Yet experience informs us that the use of images cannot long continue without the danger of such

errors.

We have already seen instances of a tendency to superstition with regard to images. This was carried still further in the East in the course of the seventh and eighth centuries; so that the people in order to do honour to the saints and martyrs, bowed, lighted candles, and offered incense before their pictures. It is true that, in acting thus, it was intended rather to honour the saints themselves than their pictures; but the tendency of such customs to cause superstition and even idolatry amongst the ignorant, is too obvious to be overlooked. The Greek emperors, Leo, Con

* [It is very questionable whether Berengar is chargeable with any error: indeed, there is hardly room for doubt that his troubles grew out of his firm adherence to the doctrine of the Church concerning the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist in its simple form, in opposition to the novel and heretical explanations of Paschasius Ratbert and others, since adopted by the Church of Rome.-AM. ED.]