tending to the Rhine, there were about 122 sees; in Spain, 76; in Britain and Ireland, 60 or 70; and in Africa, nearly 500. The patriarch of Rome gradually usurped jurisdiction over Illyricum from the fourth to the eighth century, when the emperors of the East suppressed his jurisdiction, and transferred those provinces to the patriarch of Constantinople. Gaul, Spain, and Britain, were also usurped by the same see of Rome in subsequent times; but the last of these was restored to its independence in the sixteenth century. From what has been observed above, it appears that in the fifth century the episcopal sees of the Eastern and Western Churches exceeded the number of two thousand.

Let us next consider the powers and privileges of the patriarchs. They were as follows. A patriarch had the right of ordaining the metropolitan, or principal bishop, in each of the provinces subject to his jurisdiction. He might assemble all his metropolitans and bishops in a patriarchal council, to decide questions of doctrine and discipline. Those who conceived themselves unjustly treated by the judgments of metropolitans, might appeal to him for redress. He might censure metropolitans, if they were remiss in their duties; and was consulted by them in all important and difficult cases.

The metropolitan was the bishop of the metropolis of a Roman province. According to the ancient canons, he summoned the provincial synod of all the bishops of the province, in which he presided. Nothing could be enacted in this synod without his consent, which was also to be sought for in every important matter which concerned the whole province. The metropolitan, with all the provincial bishops, confirmed and ordained newly-elected bishops. They also translated bishops, judged bishops accused of heresy or other offences, deposed them

from their sees, made canons or laws of discipline for the whole province, and decided controversies in matters of doctrine. Where these provinces were subject to patriarchs, the judgments of their synods might be reversed by the patriarchal synod; but where they were independent, their judgment was ordinarily final.

In the early ages of Christianity, every large town was an episcopal see; and had England and Ireland in those ages been as thickly peopled as Asia Minor, Italy, or Africa, we should have had three or four hundred bishoprics in these countries. Every Church then consisted of laity and clergy; the latter consisting of a bishop, presbyters, and deacons, together with other inferior clerks. The bishop usually administered the eucharist every Sunday at least; preached the Gospel; celebrated baptism, which, except in cases of necessity, was only administered at the feasts of Easter and Pentecost; ordained, confirmed, excommunicated, absolved penitents, and generally performed most of the offices of the sacred ministry. The presbyters were his assistants in these pious works; but did not for a long time preach or administer the sacraments, except in the bishop's absence, or by his desire. The deacons were chiefly, though not solely, engaged in ministering to the poor. They read the Scriptures in church, preserved order in the congregation, were employed by the bishop on missions to other Churches, and catechised the children.

The bishop generally consulted his clergy, and sometimes even the people, in cases of any importance or difficulty. As the country around was converted to Christianity, and lesser Churches were established, the bishop appointed presbyters to minister there; and the laws of the Church required

him to visit every Church in his diocese at least once in the year, and institute a most rigorous examination into the state of religion. In very large dioceses, however, which were at first thinly inhabited, but in the course of ages became exceedingly populous, it was altogether impossible for the bishop to fulfil the wishes of the Church unaided. Hence chorepiscopi, or rural bishops and visitors, and afterwards rural deans and archdeacons, were appointed to assist the bishop in the labour of visiting the Churches.

With such arduous duties and responsibilities, it is not to be wondered at that many persons in those ages refused to undertake the episcopal office. The bishops were generally far from rich in the goods of this world; indeed they commonly considered it their duty to live in great poverty and humility, and to bestow the greater part of their revenues on the poor, and on the building of churches. As soon as Christianity was delivered from persecution, numbers of churches were erected, and adorned with the utmost magnificence. The seats of the presbyters were arranged in a semicircle behind the altar; the bishop sat on a higher seat in the midst of this semicircle; the deacons stood before the presbyters. The bishop generally preached from the steps of the altar. The Scriptures were read by the deacons from the ambon, or pulpit; and the men and women sat at different sides of the church.

The whole body of ecclesiastical laws and discipline of the Church in these ages is comprised in a collection entitled "The Code of Canons of the Primitive Church," which has been published by Justel, Beveridge, and Johnson. This code, which was collected in the fifth century, included the canons or ecclesiastical laws made in the first four œcumenical councils, and in the provincial coun

cils or synods of Ancyra, A.D. 314; Neocæsarea, A.D. 314; Antioch, A.D. 341; Laodicea, A.d. 370; Gangra, A.D. 375. It comprises the rules for the ordination of the clergy, the offices of patriarchs, metropolitans, bishops, presbyters, and deacons, regulations concerning the administration of the sacraments, public penitence, the mode of dealing with heretics, schismatics, and heathens, in short, every thing which relates to the discipline of the Church. This ancient code, with the addition of some canons made in other synods, is still received by the whole of the Eastern Church. In the West it became gradually obsolete and forgotten after the twelfth century, when the compilation of Gratian was published, which comprised, indeed, most of the ancient canons, but without accuracy, and which was also crowded with a number of forged canons and decrees calculated to support the papal usurpations.

The communion of Churches received several interruptions during this period. After the council of Sardica, in 341, the eastern and western bishops remained for some years estranged from mutual communion, in consequence of their contentions about St. Athanasius. A similar division was caused in the latter part of the same century by the ordination of two patriarchs of Antioch by different parties, one of whom was recognised by the eastern, and the other by the western Church. This division was healed by the pious care of St. Chrysostom. The deposition of that great man, and the ordination of another in his place to the see of Constantinople, led to a division between the East and West, which continued for many years, until justice was done by the Churches of the East to the memory of that illustrious bishop. Another division arose in 482, when Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, having caused the re-union of the Monophysites to the

Church, on principles which left the authority of the fourth œcumenical synod in doubt, and thus compromised the truth, he was deposed and excommunicated by Felix, bishop of Rome. The great body of the eastern bishops, though orthodox themselves, did not admit the propriety of this act; and the result was, that the eastern and western Churches were again estranged from mutual communion for twenty-five years. In the following century, the Churches of Africa, Tuscany, Illyricum, and some others, refused for a time to admit the fifth œcumenical synod, and were out of communion with the rest of the Church; but on full inquiry, they adopted the general decision. The ancient British and Irish Churches, in the sixth and seventh centuries, were treated as schismatics by the Roman Church, in consequence of their adherence to their ancient customs, and for not submitting to the authority of the papal see; but they were acknowledged as Christians by other Churches.

These divisions, however much they diminished the glory of the Church, did not altogether destroy the principle of Christian charity. It was still universally held that the Church formed but one spiritual fraternity; that all Christians were members of the same body; and that it was their duty to hold communion with each other. When divisions arose, excommunication consisted generally in a simple withdrawal of communion, without any sentence of anathema, or of total separation from Christianity. These withdrawals of communion were intended to procure the reformation of the offending party; and the divided Churches always retained the same principle of veneration for Scripture, as interpreted by the doctrine of the universal Church in all past ages, and sincerely endeavoured to be re-united to their brethren in Christ.