Of the total value of the output, approximately 30 per cent was for remaking, and there was evidence in the returns made that these containers were mainly those used for oils, beer, and spirits.

BREWERS' AND DISTILLERS' OUTPUT

Brewers and distillers were requested to include in their returns relating to the output of liquors the value of casks and cases made in their workshops and not included in the value of the liquors sold. They were also asked to include the cost of repairs to casks. The values so returned in Great Britain amounted to £536,000 in 1924, and this sum forms an addition to the values shown in the statement previously given.

PERSONS EMPLOYED

The average number of persons employed during the year 1924 at the plants to which the foregoing statement of output relates was 4,646, of whom 4,057 were operators and 589 represented management, clerical, and technical staff.

MANUFACTURE BY CONSUMING INDUSTRIES

Many of the larger brewers in England operate their own cooperage plants, and it is estimated that 60 per cent at least of the new barrels made in England are manufactured by the brewers and distillers themselves. In Scotland, however, the proportion is probably less, about 40 per cent being a fair estimate. Many of the cement and dry-chemical manufacturers and some of the oil companies also make their own barrels. So far as new casks of all descriptions are concerned, an increasing number-in fact, the larger proportionare machinemade, leaving remaking (cutting down large casks into smaller ones) and repair work to be done by hand.

The pickled-herring industry occupies a rather peculiar position among those industries consuming large quantities of barrels, owing to its seasonal character, so that in order to enable the crews to make a livelihood during the offseason, they are employed making barrels. As the curers both operate the fishing boats and manufacture the barrels, this is a convenient way to insure having crews during the fishing season; otherwise they might drift to other sections of the country and it might be difficult to replace them.

TRADE ORGANIZATIONS

The British cooperage industry to-day is well organized, both employers and employees. The organization representing the former is the National Federation of Employers of Coopers in the United Kingdom and has its headquarters in London. Over 90 per cent of the master coopers in the United Kingdom belong to this federation, the membership of which numbered upward of 350 individual firms in March, 1926.

The affairs of the federation are governed by an executive council, which is composed of representatives nominated by the district associations located in the various sections of the country as follows: London, Midlands, Lancashire and Cheshire, northeast England and Yorkshire, west of England and Wales, south and west Scotland, and east and north Scotland.

The principal objects of the federation are to maintain industrial peace, handle matters affecting the relations between the employers and the coopers' union, and any others of importance to the cooperage industry as a whole.

OPERATIVES' UNION

The operatives' union is known as the Coopers' Federation of Great Britain and Ireland, which also has its headquarters in London. With the exception of those employed in the pickled-herring industry, virtually all of the coopers employed in Great Britain are members of this union, and at the latter part of 1926 these numbered approximately 6,800. Owing to the peculiar position occupied by the makers of herring barrels, they do not come under the wage agreements of the National Joint Industrial Council of the cooperage industry.

The wage scale paid in the British cooperage industry varies according to the kind of barrels made and the section of the country in which the work is done.

JOINT INDUSTRIAL COUNCIL

The principal function of the Joint Industrial Council, which is a body consisting of an equal number of employers and employees (12 of each) appointed by their respective trade organizations, is to secure the largest possible measure of joint action between employers and workpeople for the development of the industry as a part of national life and for the improvement of the conditions of all engaged in the industry. Any matter that falls within the scope of this general definition may be acted upon by the council.

Among its more specific objects are the following:

Regular consideration of wages, hours, and working conditions in the industry as a whole.

The consideration of measures for regularizing production and employment. The consideration of the existing machinery for the settlement of differences between different parties and sections in the industry and the establishment of machinery for this purpose where it does not already exist, with the object of securing the speedy settlement of difficulties.

The consideration of measures for securing the inclusion of all employers and workpeople in their respective associations.

The collection of statistics and information on matters appertaining to the industry.

The encouragement of the study of processes and design and of research, with a view to perfecting the products of the industry.

The provision of facilities for the full consideration and utilization of invention and any improvement in machinery or method, and for the adequate safeguarding of the rights of the designers of such improvements, and to secure that such improvements in method or invention shall give to each party an equitable share of the benefits financially or otherwise arising therefrom.

Inquiries into special problems of the industry, including the comparative study of the organization and methods of the industry in this and other countries, and, where desirable, the publication of reports, the arrangement of lectures, and the holding of conferences on subjects of general interest to the industry.

The improvement of the health conditions obtaining in the industry and the provision of special treatment where necessary for workers in the industry. The supervision of entry into, and training for, the industry, and cooperation with the educational authorities in arranging education in all its branches for the industry.

The issue to the press of authoritative statements upon matters affecting the industry of general interest to the community.

Representation of the needs and opinions of the industry to the government, government departments, and other authorities.

The consideration of any other matters that may be referred to it by the government or any government department.

The consideration of the proposals for district councils and works committees put forward in the Whitley report, having regard in each case to any such organizations as may already be in existence.

Cooperation with the joint industrial councils for other industries to deal with problems of common interest.

In addition to the National Joint Industrial Council, there are district councils located in the same sections of the country as the local associations of the employers' federations. There are seven in all and they cover the entire United Kingdom. The main functions of these district councils are as follows:

The consideration of any matters that may be referred to them by the National Joint Industrial Council, and executive action within their district in connection with decisions arrived at and matters deputed to them by the National Council. To make recommendations to the National Joint Industrial Council on any matters affecting the well-being of the industry as a whole.

To take executive action within their respective districts in connection with matters of purely local interest, including matters referred to them by works committees, subject to the right of the National Council to require notice of all decisions and within 10 days to veto any such action if it be found to involve the interests of other districts. The secretaries of the National Council shall communicate to the district councils within seven days from the receipt of the minutes as to whether in the opinion of the officers of the National Council such action is likely to involve the interests of other districts, and a final decision must be made by the National Council within a further 28 days. If the National Council do not excercise their right to veto any particular action of the district councils, such decisions shall come into operation retrospectively from the date of the decision by the district councils.

Cooperation with the district councils for other industries to deal with problems of common interest.

Where no adequate machinery exists for the settlement of differences between parties and sections of the industry, such differences as can not be settled within an individual factory or workshop shall be referred to the district council, and, failing a settlement by the district council, such differences shall be referred to the National Council.

Like the national councils, both employers and employees are equally represented on the district councils.

As a result of the efforts of the National Joint Industrial Council, an agreement stabilizing wages throughout the cooperage industry was made in 1925, and both sides have worked in harmony since that time.

OUTLOOK FOR AMERICAN STAVES

The brewing industry is the most important consumer of staves in the United Kingdom, it being estimated that approximately 50 per cent in value of the total imports are used by it. Although during the war American oak staves were imported for the manufacture of beer barrels, owing to the impossibility of getting the "Memel," just as soon as these were again available the industry returned to them. In spite of great efforts made since the armistice to induce the breweries to use American oak staves, they have not met with the slightest success, and it is the consensus of opinion that so long as the

"Memel" product is available it will continue to be used by the brewing industry.

American oak, however, is preferred over all other by the distilling and palm-oil industries, and this business will doubtless be retained, although there is considerable competition in the latter trade from secondhand shooks. These industries, together with the oil (palm, kerosene, and edible) and keg trade, form a group second in importance to brewing in the United Kingdom stave trade.

Next in importance are those industries using containers made from north European pine and spruce-namely, the cement, herring, dry-chemical, and china-clay industries. Owing to the close proximity of the countries supplying these staves, they can be delivered at prices with which America has not so far been able to compete, and although efforts have been made to introduce the Douglas fir stave for the manufacture of cement barrels it was not found economically possible.

Of the minor stave-consuming industries the glucose and flour are the most important, and both use containers made out of American

There are few complaints made against American staves by the British importers, and it would seem that the export trade is in competent hands. Occasionally, it is said gum staves arrive discolored, which may be caused either by lack of protection from the weather during transit from the mill to seaboard or improper stowage on the vessel. On the whole, however, the British stave trade is well satisfied with the stock received from the United States

PROSPECT OF EXPANSION

The increased use of American staves, as limited to the manufacture of containers for specific commodities, is determined by the state of trade in those particular industries. When business is good the demand increases, while, on the other hand, depression is immediately reflected in the stave market. There are, however, some factors that are working toward a decrease in the total quantity of returnable barrels used, the principal of which is the great advance of motor transportation in Great Britain. Prior to the advent of the motor truck, commodities shipped in barrels, even when destined for near-by towns, had to be hauled in many instances by horse-drawn wagon to a railroad freight station, loaded on cars, and again hauled by wagon from the station at destination to the consumers' place of business. As a result of this procedure, several days necessarily elapsed while the barrels were in transit and the same loss in time took place during the return of the empties. As a consequence there were always large numbers of barrels in transit. The advent of the motor truck has changed all this and the railroads are now used only for long hauls. Trucks deliver over long distances, taking the full barrels out in the morning and picking up the empties en route, and return the same night. The retail trade is also relieved of carrying stocks, as fresh supplies can be delivered by truck the day following the order. Accordingly, where formerly an allowance of several days was made between the placing of an order and delivery, business is now done on practically a day-to-day basis, so that the turnover of barrels is much greater than when slower methods of transportation were used.

Another important factor tending toward a reduction in the num~ ber of barrels used is the shortening of the time taken for maturing of spirits, owing to the perfecting of new methods. Under the old system large quantities were stored for long periods, but as a result of the new methods the turnover of spirits has been considerably accelerated and fewer barrels are required for maturing than formerly. It is also said in the trade that whisky for export is being shipped in cases more than formerly, and this practice also has its effect on the stave trade.

Again, in some instances, liquor is delivered to the retailer direct. in tank wagons instead of in barrels as in the past. The growing use of motor tank wagons and the substitution of metal storage tanks is adversely affecting the use of barrels in the kerosene trade. Retail stores, to an increasing extent, are discarding the wood barrel and replacing it with metal tanks.

The use of gum flour barrels is limited to ship's stores, and it is probable that, were it not for the British Board of Trade regulation requiring flour on ships to be packed in wooden barrels, this trade would be lost. The business is comparatively small and no great expansion can be anticipated, but consumption is likely to remain around present levels.

USE OF SUBSTITUTES

The use of substitutes for wood barrels is making little headway in this market, except in the dry-chemical and, to a smaller degree, the china-clay industries, which are using burlap bags to a greater extent. There are many reasons for the use of wood barrels, such as convenience of handling, strength, comparatively low cost, and maturing properties, and long years of use have shown it to be a very satisfactory container for many commodities. It would be difficult to induce manufacturers of such goods to use containers made out of other material.

CONCLUSION

American staves are being used in the United Kingdom for the manufacture of containers for which experience has shown them particularly suitable, and the demand will naturally fluctuate in accordance with the prosperity or depression in the particular industries using them. It is, however, also true that there are small prospects of their being used to make containers for other industries, either on account of preference, as in the brewing industry, or cost, as, for instance, the north European softwood stave. In view, therefore, of the changes in transportation, maturing methods, or other factors, any increase in the use of American staves is considered in the trade as improbable in the future, but so long as barrels are needed for whisky, oil, and other commodities, there will always be a demand for the American product.

SHIPBUILDING

As the foremost shipbuilding country of the world, the United Kingdom is of particular importance to American lumber exporters for the reason that upon the activity in that industry depends, to a large extent, the demand for several American woods.