DECK HOUSES AND RAILS

Teak is used exclusively for the outside weather doors of companionways, officers' quarters, chart room, and wheelhouse, also for the accommodation ladder and deck rails; these latter being generally cut out of planks 21⁄2 to 8 inches thick by 8 inches and wider, 16 to 20 feet long.

STATEROOM BULKHEADING AND LININGS

While Canadian white pine is still preferred, its cost is causing shipbuilders to seek less expensive material. In this respect, okoumé (gabon) plywood is being used to an increasing extent for stateroom bulkheading and lining. Five-eighths of an inch and 1 inch thick, in five or seven ply, are used for these purposes, cross-banded or multi-ply boards only being considered suitable, it being claimed that the cores of laminated boards will work loose under the strain of constant vibration of the vessel.

Douglas fir plywood, however, which is admirably suitable, has, after considerable effort, gained an opening and the prospects are favorable for its increased use for these purposes.

PANTRIES AND GALLEYS

On first-class passenger liners mahogany or oak is used for pantry furnishing, while Sitka spruce, Canadian white pine, or north European spruce are used for shelving. Galley furniture is largely made of teak, while for sinks Canadian birch, and European and Canadian spruce, covered with zinc, are used.

MASTS, BOOMS, AND YARDARMS

Southern pine and, to a small extent, Douglas fir are the principal woods used for topmasts, yardarms, and derrick booms. Most vessels nowadays, however, are using steel so that the demand for timber for these purposes is declining.

HOLD LINING, HATCH COVERS, ETC.

Large quantities of softwood lumber are required for the lining of holds, bunker ceilings, and pipe casing. No particular wood is used, Canadian spruce, north European pine and spruce, and native Scotch fir all being used indiscriminately. On the better-class cargo vessels, however, southern pine is frequently used because of its superior wearing qualities.

Considerably greater quantities of lumber are required for refrigerator than for ordinary cargo vessels. These, in addition to the ordinary lining which is used to protect the cargo from plate sweat, have an insulation lining and bottom, the intervening space between it and the regular lining being filled with cork or other insulating material. The hatch covers are also insulated in the same manner.

PROPELLER BUSHING

No wood has been found so far equal to lignum-vitæ for this purpose. It is imported chiefly from the Dominican Republic (the best variety), Bahama, and Jamaica.

LIFEBOATS

Lifeboats, which must be constructed according to specifications drawn up by the Board of Trade, are not usually built by the builders of the ship but are generally purchased by them from firms who make a specialty of their manufacture. The stem and sternposts are usually made of native oak, the wood being purchased in the log cut through and through and the shapes cut from planks so as to get the natural curve of the grain. Native oak is also largely used for deadwood, apron, and the thwarts, but where teak is used for planking the thwarts are of that wood also. Canadian rock elm is used mostly for the keel, framing, gunnel, stem and stern knees, and belt. This wood is imported mostly in the form of square hewn timber and cut into the sizes desired as required. Native larch is preferred for keelson and planking, but when the lifeboat is for a vessel destined to trade in the far eastern or tropical trade teak is substituted.

The lifeboats are fitted with ash oars imported ready-made from the United States and an oak water beaker purchased from local coopers.

SAILING VESSELS

The building of ocean-going sailing vessels has practically ceased in the United Kingdom.

BARGES

Although many of the canals have largely fallen into disuse in . face of railroad and motor competition, there are still a great many barges in use. Especially in the port of London are they in evidence, much of the cargo arriving there being delivered overside into sail barges and transported by them direct to consignees located in the Thames estuary. The usual length of a Thames sail barge is 82 feet, breadth 18 feet 6 inches, depth 6 feet 6 inches, which enables them to navigate in comparatively shallow waters.

Native oak and elm are extensively used in the construction of these barges, elm for the keel and that part of the ends nearest the keel, and oak for the sternpost, stem, stern and stem knees, such part of the ends as are not of elm, floor joists, rudderpost, and leeboards. The keelson is generally a piece of 14 by 14 inch Douglas fir, the same wood also being used for the bottom, while for the side keelsons and rudder southern pine is used.

North European pine 3 by 6 inches, painted both sides and calked, is used for the decking, while for the sheathing, which is diagonally set with tar and hair, 1-inch boards of the same wood is used.

As to the spars, the mast is generally southern pine while for the sprit, which is exceptionally long, some measuring as much as 56 feet, Douglas fir is usual, while Swedish or Norwegian pine is employed for the topmast, mizzenmast, and bowsprit.

MOTOR VEHICLES

The manufacture of automobiles, trucks, omnibuses, chars-à-bancs, and commercial vehicles is rapidly becoming one of Great Britain's major industries. To-day it probably ranks first among the engineering trades. Since the war, British producers have concentrated on increased output and a larger share, not only of the home market, but the foreign markets as well, particularly those of the Dominions.

The reimposition of the import duty of 33% per cent on passenger cars in July, 1925, and on trucks in April, 1927, acted as a powerful stimulant and production has increased from 66,300 cars and 21,600 trucks in 1923, the first year for which separate figures are available, to approximately 158,600 cars and 50,000 trucks in 1926.

There are about 60 firms in the United Kingdom producing passenger cars and 50 producing commercial vehicles, and some produce both kinds. Excluding one outstanding company which has an annual output of more than 50,000 cars and trucks, the general output of individual factories varies from 1,000 to 2,000 cars per year in the luxury or high-grade class of cars to 8,000 and 10,000 cars per year for a few firms manufacturing medium-priced vehicles. A marked feature of the British automobile industry is the extent to which bodies are built by firms solely engaged in that business owing to the British preference for cars of distinction or individuality. It is a common practice among persons owning high-grade cars to purchase the chassis from a manufacturer and have the body built to suit special requirements or ideas by a body-building firm. Many of these firms, before the advent of the motor-driven vehicle, were carriage builders and, as such, well qualified to undertake high-class coach work when changing times forced them to seek new avenues of business.

The motor-vehicle industry is a large consumer of wood and of considerable importance to the United States export trade because upon its prosperity depends almost entirely the British demand for American ash. During 1926 over 15,000,000 feet board measure of ash lumber were exported to the United Kingdom from the United States and, in addition, many thousand logs, practically all of which were for use in the manufacture of motor vehicles. Although experiments have been made with all-metal bodies by some manufacturers, little headway has been made and it is doubtful if there is any danger of wood being replaced to any appreciable extent for some time to

come.

PASSENGER CARS

Framework.-By far the most important species entering into the manufacture of passenger cars is ash, which is used almost exclusively for framework. The United States, native, Irish Free State, and Polish varieties are all used but America furnishes by far the greater portion of the industry's requirements. During the past few years efforts have been made to introduce central European beech for body frames but with little success, ash easily retaining its unassailable position for this purpose. Hard maple was also used to some small extent but its use has now practically been discontinued.

Bodies.-Metal panels are used exclusively in passenger cars except for those having custom-built bodies, which frequently are most luxurious. Wooden panels are frequently used in these, mahogany being considered the best for this purpose. Most dash or instrument boards, as they are called, are now made of enameled metal, although mahogany, walnut, or yellow poplar stained to simulate these woods are also used. Oak was popular for this purpose some years ago but in recent times it has dropped out of favor.

Steering wheels are principally of composition and only in the more expensive cars are they of wood, in which case American black walnut is used.

Wood wheels are seldom used by British car manufacturers, disk, cast, or wire being preferred. However, when wood wheels are furnished, ash or hickory is used but the quantity consumed for this small.

purpose is very

Various woods are used for running boards, among them being cypress and poplar, but little importance is attached to the variety as the boards are covered with metal.

In addition to these principal uses, small quantities of fancy woods for interior trim and European softwoods for floors are also used.

TRUCKS

Native ash is preferred for the runners and cross-bearers of trucks, it being claimed that this variety has more strength than any other. The use of native oak for these parts, also for the flooring, which naturally is subjected to very hard wear, is growing to a considerable

extent.

For light commercial vehicles, the question of tax is an important sales factor. As this tax is graded according to the unladen weight of the truck, the kind of wood used has a bearing on it. For vehicles over 12 hundredweight (1,344 pounds) but not exceeding 1 long ton (2,240 pounds) the tax is £16 per annum, while for over 1 ton but not exceeding 2 tons it is £26. For this reason some manufacturers are using other species in place of ash in order to build a truck that will come within the minimum tax limit, and continental beech is the variety most commonly substituted.

While European softwoods are still largely used for the sides, there is an increased tendency toward ash, oak, magnolia, or other hardwoods.

Many trucks have a compartment or cab for the driver for the construction of which magnolia or poplar is largely used.

In addition to open trucks, large numbers of light commercial vans have covered tops. While plywood is being used to an increasing extent, most commercial vehicles at present have bent ash frames. These are either lined or unlined (when lined north European softwood is used) and covered with waterproofed fabric.

OMNIBUSES

As in trucks, native ash is used almost exclusively for the runners and cross-bearers of omnibuses. As the maximum length of American ash lumber is 16 feet and omnibus runners are 18 feet and longer, it is doubtful if the demand could be met from the log imports even if that variety were acceptable. The body frame, step treads and risers, and floors were are all of ash, the latter being made of short strips about 1⁄2 by 1 inch laid on a subfloor of north European softwood in corrugated form in order to drain off the water in rainy weather. Any small pieces left over from framework are utilized for this purpose.

Sitka spruce is principally used for the roofs, the large quantities of reject airplane material, which has been available during the last few years at a very moderate price, having been an important factor in encouraging its use for this purpose.

While there is a growing tendency toward the use of metal for inside panels, north European birch plywood is still generally used and, to a small extent, Japanese and Chinese ash.

Interior seats are placed crosswise in the omnibus with a center aisle and are generally upholstered, the frame being of ash with a birch plywood back. Exterior seats are placed similarly to the interior and are of the garden type. They are made of ash and painted to protect them from the weather, comparatively few omnibuses having covered tops at the present time although the practice is growing.

PURCHASES AND METHOD OF USE

British automobile manufacturers buy their ash requirements either in the form of logs cut through and through or as lumber on grade. This latter, however, is received only from the United States, first and seconds and No. 1 common and select grades in all thicknesses being used. Stock is imported green and stored for about nine months to season before being sold to the manufacturers. Other varieties used are purchased in the form of square-edged lumber only On being received at the factory, the lumber is cut and bent into the sizes and patterns desired, which method largely eliminates waste and enables very close utilization of the lumber.

The manufacture of bent timber for motor bodies, however, is being successfully developed by firms who specialize in bending work and instead of doing this themselves many motor-vehicle manufacturers are now buying their bends ready-made. Bends are supplied to fit all the important curves in any pattern or specification for back lights, elbow and waist rails, back pillars, wheel arches, roof and cant rails, or other parts requiring bent wood. The fact that in bent timber the grain of the wood follows the curvature ensures, if the steaming and bending is properly done, that the bend, when dried, will retain its shape indefinitely. Another point in favor of its use is the elimination of joints, thus doing away with creaking, always an unpleasant possibility with jointed woodwork.

The fact that bending firms do not limit their business to the motor-vehicle trade but cater to all industries using bent timber enables them to utilize a much greater percentage of the lumber than is possible where the number of patterns and sizes is comparatively limited, as in a motor-vehicle plant making few types of bodies. For this reason, they can in many instances furnish bends at a lower price than the factories can make them themselves.

CRITICISM OF AMERICAN ASH

The principal complaint made against American ash is that of texture. Only firm-textured white ash is wanted and if any other kind is shipped trouble is sure to result. It is claimed by one British lumber importer, who caters largely to the automobile industry, that he frequently receives lumber with several feet at one end being soft textured and probably cut from the swell butt of the log, while the rest of the piece is tough and perfectly suitable for bending purposes. Shipments of this character cause much trouble and many claims would be avoided if the soft parts were trimmed off before shipment. Swell butts in logs are also disliked and any large percentage in a parcel will doubtless result in an allowance.

Worms are another cause of complaint and are most frequent toward the end of the log-shipping season. Only logs felled during the winter months, before the sap has begun to run, should ever be