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Although this has not yet been made a legal offence, it is a moral one; for it practically deprives the master of his fair degree of liberty, and imposes a heavy penalty upon every man who conscientiously objects to share the proceedings of the societies.

To resist such mischievous and tyrannical proceedings as these the masters would do well to combine, and it would be a blessing to thousands of workmen, as well as to society at large, if they became triumphant in their resistance, and put an end to the despotism of trades unions. For success on this one point would destroy the "despotism" of such bodies. If working men were free either to join or to stand aloof from such societies, without suffering personal loss, all the oppressive powers of the societies would at once cease. It is only because they have contrived to impose a penalty upon the working man who dissents from them that they have become so strong and overbearing. If, therefore, the Metropolitan master builders had been well-advised, they would not have insisted upon the men promising not to combine at all on the labour question, because the men have an undoubted right so to combine if they please. What they should have insisted upon is, that the men whom they employed should pledge themselves to abstain froin that particular act of tyranny which we have pointed out, and from such other specific acts of a tyrannous character as they, the masters, may be able to mention. This would have commanded the unanimous approval of the press, and would have left the society men without any plausible pretext for resistance. At any rate it would have brought the real and not an imaginary case forward for decision, and would have given the men no chance of selecting false ground for their battle-field. As it is, we have the men on the one side contending for an arbitrary limitation of working hours, and the masters on the other enforcing an equally arbitrary arrangement of their own.

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That the men's demand for the enforced reduction of the working hours from ten to nine is an arbitrary and unfair demand is shown by the fact that it is only by the tyrannous acts of the societies that it can be maintained. If nonsociety men were permitted to exercise free trade in their labour, we should hear nothing of the nine hours' movement. And that they ought to be permitted to do this there can be no doubt. Lord Brougham, in his "Rights of "Industry," has stated the terms of the workman's freedom most clearly, and these terms are all that a reasonable man can require. "There can be no doubt," he says, "that the "labourer has rights over his labour which no "government and no individual should presume to interfere with. There can be no doubt that, as an exchanger of labour for capital, the labourer ought to be assured that the exchange shall in all respects be as free "as the exchanges of any other description of "property. His rights as an exchanger are, "that he shall not be compelled to part with "his property, by any arbitrary enactments, "without having as ample an equivalent as the "general laws of exchange will afford him; that "he shall be free to use every just means, either "by himself or by union with others, to obtain such an equivalent; that he shall be at full liberty to offer that property in the best market "that he can find, without being limited to any "particular market; that he may give to that property every modification which it is capa"ble of receiving from his own natural or ac"quired skill, without being narrowed to any one form of producing it. In other words, "natural justice demands that the working man "shall work when he please and be idle when

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"he please-always providing that if he make
'a contract to work he shall not violate that
engagement by remaining idle; that no labour
"shall be forced from him, and no rate of pay-
"ment for that labour be proscribed by statutes
or ordinances; that he shall be free to obtain
as high wages as he can possibly get, and
"unite with others to obtain them, always pro-
viding, that in his union he does not violate
"that freedom of industry in others which is the
"foundation of his own attempts to improve his
condition; that he may go from place to place
to exchange his labour without being interfered
"with by corporate rights or monopolies of any
sort, whether of masters or workmen; and
"that he may turn from one employment to the
"other, if he so think fit, without being con-
"fined to the trade he originally learnt, or may
"strike into any line of employment without
"having regularly learnt it at all."

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These are the conditions on which working men exercise their labour and skill in this country. If the conditions are wrong, or can be improved, let us have the subject amicably discussed, and a public understanding arrived at. It is mere folly for the builders or any other class of men to attempt to set them permanently aside by the coarse coercion of strikes; and it is also mere folly for masters to meet the coercive measures of the men by any mode of action which is opposed to these conditions.

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that it will be too long about. Of the task of producing the large number of tons necessary for effecting a simultaneous exchange of old coins for new ones, it may be said in the language of Shakspeare:-"If 'twere done, when "twere done, then 'twere well 'twere done quickly." We have before had occasion to speak of what was accomplished in 1816-17 with regard to the exchange of the worn and torn silver coins of previous dates, and it would be idle to suppose that the Mint could not effect very much more now than it did then. Nevertheless, increased facilities, mechanical and otherwise, would doubtless be required. The vote of £10,000 does not seem large enough to commence so gigantic a work as the creation of 6,000 tons of new coins; but judiciously laid out it is certain that much may be done with it. Converted into pence, halfpence, and farthings, of something like the dimensions adumbrated in our last article, and bought up by the public, the £10,000 would soon be quadrupled, and Government would thus have increased capital in hand wherewith to go again into the metal market. Perhaps, indeed, this is the thrifty and economical design of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The hon. gentleman, aware of the "ignorant impatience of taxation existing among Her Majesty's lieges, thought that he had better tone down his demands, and whilst exhibiting his own knowledge of commercial economy quiet the grumblers inside and outside the House. At any rate, this is a much more rational theory for reducing the estimate to onefifth of the sum originally considered necessary, than the notable one of buying the plant for a contractor's mint at Birmingham or elsewhere.

We shall be glad to hear that the authorities of the Mint are looking the important duty fully in the face, and taking effectual means to accomplish it. Speedily, we learn, the steam power of the establishment will be equal to 100 horses, and surely no paucity of mechanical appliances should prevent the production of as great a quantity of coins as this power properly employed would effect. Nothing less than two millions per week ought to be the rate at which Her Majesty's benign features should be impressed upon the new bronze discs at the Mint, and this is a speed which, without contractor's aid, might, we think, be easily at

THE NEW BRONZE COINAGE. FROM the evidence of Doctor Graham, Master of the Mint, as given before the late Decimal Coinage Commission-that is, before Lord Overstone-we gather that gentleman's opinion as to the value of bronze as a material for coins, which opinion, on the eve of a new coinage of mixed metal, becomes especially valuable. In July, 1857, the present Master of the Mint stated that the French Government had materially diminished the size of the inferior coins of the French empire, and that the change had been a very popular measure. He also believed that a similar alteration might be beneficially made on this side of the Channel. As in France bronze had been used in place of copper for the new currency, so would he have it used here. When questioned as to the proportions of the various metals necessary to form a mix-tained there. ture at once hard and attractive in appearance, As to the designs for the coming coinage, we Dr. Graham replied that the bronze of the have already suggested the advisability of open ancients could scarcely be improved upon, and competition among engravers-with the offer of that the French bronze was analogous to it. a prize or prizes-and we now propose, in addiBronze, said this eminent authority, has nume- tion, the nomination of a mixed jury to decide rous advantages over copper, of which the pre- as to the merits of the various works. We say servation of the coin in a better condition is a mixed jury advisedly, for a purely artistic one one; among its other advantages may be men- would not do. You must have something more tioned that in consequence of its being much than a beautiful and appropriate creation of the harder than copper, the pieces of money struck mind and the pencil; you must have that which from it may be considerably thinner, so that will not only show well on paper, but which lightness might be obtained without an incon- may be easily and rapidly transferred after envenient sacrifice of size. One remarkable ad-graving from the die to the disc of metal to vantage, too, it possessed, which was that coun- be impressed. In short, the accepted design terfeit coins could not be made to resemble in must be one which will look well, coin well, colour coins of mixed metal. It was possible, and wear well. Hence the necessity for a mixed and, indeed, easy to coat metals by the electro-jury-half practical, half artistic. type with pure copper, but it was impossible to coat them with a composition like that of bronze. Further testimony of a similar kind or tending in the same direction was given on this occasion by the Master of the Mint, and it must be very satisfactory to the public to know that in the new bronze they are likely to get, in all respects, a better article, and one which will be much cheaper, than the pure copper coinage of which the Mint, we may suppose, has now struck its last piece.

The chief misgiving we now have upon the subject of the new issue of bronze monies is,

The Mint engraver might, of course, compete with out-door artists, and the award would, no doubt, be given to the most meritorious and practicable design. It will be, in this instance, too late to retreat when once the "die is cast," and hence our urgent desire to make sure of winning. To stamp into existence in England, in 1859, a new coinage which would not in all respects-artistical, mechanical, proportionate, and durable-bear a favourable comparison with any coinage in use abroad, would be to stamp ourselves with indelible disgrace. National works have, however, so often proved

national failures, that there is some reason for anxiety even in the introduction of a new coin. Whilst, therefore, all proper haste in effecting the reform is counselled, and red tapery is denounced in toto, it may be hoped that sufficient care will be taken to guard against an error which would be irretrievable. Doctor Graham is, no doubt, sensitively alive to the responsibility of his office, and in his hands the public interests so far are in safe keeping.

FREE DRINKING FOUNTAINS. Nor until this year of grace 1859 have we English people had the good sense to give the poor men, women, and children of our streets a free cup of cold water in the name of Christion charity. In this metropolis and other large towns we have, by our neglect, driven our poor street population incontinently into the beerhouse and dram-shop. We have been very loud and very active in our zeal for the working classes. We have exclaimed against their drunkenness and sighed over their depravity; established huge societies for their reform and built churches for their salvation. And we

have doubtless in these ways done much for their good. But the simple expedient of putting up a water fountain in competition with the gin-shop-of offering a free cup of pure water instead of an expensive glass of fiery poison, has not until now occurred to us. All honour to Mr. Melly, who, a year or two since, began the humane work! All honour to Mr. Smithies, to Mr. Wakefield, the Earl of Carlisle, the Earl of Shaftesbury, and others, who have followed his noble lead!

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with gratitude that most of those who do
drink at them will imbibe a healthier fluid
than the poor are commonly supplied with (the
whole of the fountain water being carefully
filtered)-that in times of prevalent disease
these fountains will supply a most valuable and
unstinted antidote that the temptations and
risks to which the poor are exposed in beer-
shops and other like places will no longer be
forced upon them-and that, as a consequence
of all this, we may fairly anticipate a great re-
duction in the vices and crimes of the lower
orders.

Experience has already gone a long way in confirmation of these statements. Let us quote a remark or two on this point from Mr. Wakefield's able pamphlet, "A Plea for Drinking Fountains," which we would strongly commend to the notice of our readers. The author says: "The fountains in Liverpool have been used to an extent exceeding the most sanguine expec"tations of their founder. The results are "given in a tabular statement of the working "of thirteen of the fountains erected by Mr. "Melly. They may be generally stated thus: "in one day, of about 13 hours 8 minutes, 24,702 persons drank at 13 fountains; or, in "other words, one person drank at each of the "13 fountains every 25 seconds for 13 consecu"tive hours; at one fountain as many as 3,340 'persons drank in 12 hours, being an average "of one drinker every 11 seconds; there were "five other fountains at each of which above "2,000 persons drank; or, taking all the foun"tains, there was one drinker for every two "seconds throughout a day of 13 hours." These We are not very much enamoured of what registries were not all made, we are told, in are called philanthropic movements in general. summer; fewer persons, but still a considerable The good spirit which prompts them often number, drink in winter. Allowing, however, perishes in the mere act of forming an organi- for this Mr. Melly observes that "a calculation zation for itself to work with, and the organiza-"based upon a series of observations taken at tion itself becomes what Mr. Carlyle would call a galvanized corpse," in which we see no beauty. But we believe in the work which the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association has undertaken. There is nothing questionable in its objects; nothing doubtful in its agency. Already the poorer population of London are drinking with delight of its bounty. On another page we give a list of no less than about SEVENTY sites on which the crystal cup is already sparkling, or is about to sparkle. And yet the Association has been at work for four months only!

In this day, when "bitter beer" is the continual cry of so many pompous mouths when claret is giving its colour in so many cups when champagne is "moving itself aright" in so many glasses-when Catawba wine with its taste divine, " dulcet, delicious, and dreamy," is filling so many rooms with its "sweet per"fume"-in this day, we say, it may seem old-fashioned to put in a good word for mere water; and yet we do not hesitate to say that clear, pure, bright water still appears to us as sacred a thing as it did to Him who eighteen centuries since chose it as the best symbol of life which this world afforded. It is, indeed, the greatest physical gift of God to man. There is nothing we have which we would not sooner forego than water. How desirable, then, is it that a thing so excellent, and so abundant withal, should be placed within the reach even of the poorest poor.

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"improvement in their habits, and regularity "of attendance; attributable to their decreased use of beer, in consequence of the facility of obtaining pure water which the fountains "afford." It would be difficult, he adds, to exaggerate the gratitude of the poor for these fountains, testified not only by the great numbers who flock to them, but by their many grateful acknowledgments in words and looks, as they quaff the pure cold water to allay their thirst.

We commend this subject to the regards not of London readers only, but also to those employers of labour throughout the country whom it is our privilege to address. Let us distribute freely to our mechanics and to our poor people that healthful and cheering fluid which Heaven has bestowed upon us so copiously, and we shall thus remove from them both the excuse for, and the occasion of, their worst sin.

THE CORT FAMILY.

PARLIAMENT has just voted £5,000 as a compensation to Mr. Barber for the mistake which was made in transporting him, and no one can possibly object to the arrangement. But it certainly seems strange that a Parliament which can show itself so just in a case of purely individual importance, can do nothing to cancel the effects of that great act of villainy, one is tempted to say-by which the family of the great CORT was impoverished. Hear, reader, once more the simple tale:-"In bringing his "inventions to perfection, Henry Cort expended

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"different seasons, and in different parts of
"the town, by persons of perfect reliability,"
"employed for the purpose, gives an average
"number of upwards of 1,000 drinking every
"day throughout the year at each of the 40
"fountains scattered throughout the town and
"its outskirts." This would give 15 millions
of persons who annually drink at the Liverpool
fountains. And subsequently, in March, 1859,
Mr. Melly writes that he is quite sure that if
"20 more fountains were judiciously placed".
"here (Liverpool) both the new and old fountains
"would average 1,000 each the year round;"
that is, if Liverpool were adequately supplied":
with fountains they would be used 22 millions
of times in the year! In other provincial towns,
the experiment has been attended with like
results.

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a considerable private fortune, and even sa"crificed one half of his patent rights, after "which the remaining half, together with all "his other property, works, trade, and con"tracts, were confiscated by the naval autho"rities, in 1788, for the debt of a partner (a "Government servant who became a defaulter), not equal in amount to one-tenth of the sum "afterwards produced from them. The family "of this man, who thus nobly enriched his "country to the ruin of himself, have, we most "respectfully submit, higher claims upon the "nation than any Government has ever yet re"cognised, although several Ministers of the "Crown have, from time to time, aided them, "none more promptly or more liberally than your lordship (Lord Derby) and Lord Palmerston; some, it is true, have received small "pensions, and all have been participants of the very limited funds dispensed by the Royal "bounty; but not one has been raised a single "step from indigence, nor is one at this mo"ment above want." This is the language of a memorial which has been signed by one hundred If such have been the results in the provinces, and thirty of the foremost manufacturers and it will be conceded, says Mr. Wakefield, that men of science of this age and nation, addressed drinking fountains would be even more used in to two Prime Ministers in succession; yet the Metropolis. The greater radiation of heat nothing but donations from the Bounty Fund, from a larger surface of buildings, less shade, infinitesimal pensions, and promises of suitable more smoke and dust, and longer street dis-recompense hereafter, can be elicited from those tances, combine to make London a more thirst-noble-blooded personages. exciting place than any provincial town. It is But we must not be severe upon Ministers of gratifying to state that the result of the experi- the Crown when we find that those men of ment of the first drinking fountain erected by princely fortunes, the great ironmasters, who the Association in St. Sepulchre's church, on have been made princes by Henry Cort's invenSnow-hill, fully confirms the above. This foun- tions, and by them alone, show no gratitude to tain is used about 7,000 times daily. It will the man who made them. Not long since Mr. be observed that this is more than double the Fairbairn, moved by the long neglect which number that drank at any one of the forty- Henry Cort's children have had to suffer, three fountains erected in Liverpool. "As one offered £100 in the columns of the Times as "of the many gratifying evidences of the prac- the commencement of a subscription for the "tical usefulness of these fountains, it may be family. That generous and disinterested offer stated," says Mr. Wakefield, "that a gentle- elicited, we are ashamed to say, not a single man who largely employs workmen in iron-response. It is true that small subscriptions "works, in the town of Wednesbury, having have of late years been given by a few ironrecently erected fountains for his workpeople, masters towards a Cort Testimonial Fund; but says, that his manager has since observed an these deserve no mention side by side with Mr.

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We cannot undertake here to mention all the advantages which the new drinking fountains will offer to the labouring classes. We may say, however, that they will afford most welcome refreshment to the thousands of working people who are employed far from homethat thousands who even at home have no pure or sufficient water supply will drink at them";

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:

THE CASE OF HENRY CORT,

AND

HIS INVENTIONS IN THE MANUFACTURE
OF BRITISH IRON.

BY

No. IX.

Fairbairn's noble letter, or in the presence of the great wealth which Henry Cort's inventions have created. The money value of the exported iron, iron machinery, and other articles made from iron, which was nothing in 1783, was, for the one year 1857, no less than £22,994,671 | THOMAS WEBSTER, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Barrister-at-Law. | doing, and P. Onions has been obliged to dissterling and the whole gain which this country has derived from the said inventions during the last seventy years, is estimated, in the "Encyclopædia Britannica," to amount to £600,000,000 sterling, as was stated in a Memorial signed by twenty-five of the most eminent authorities, supported by sixty Members of Parliament, including two Cabinet Ministers, presented in 1857 by Lord Stanley to Viscount Palmerston. This enormous addition to the wealth of the nation is quite independent of the collateral advantages resulting from the joint development of engineering, mining, agricultural, manufacturing, and every other branch of industry in which iron is largely employed. No ironmaster can therefore mention the £5 which he gave a year or two since as an excuse for not following up in a worthy spirit the lead which Mr. Fairbairn held out.

But the Cort family is even yet, we believe, destined to see brighter days. The whole of the facts of the case have been laid before Mr. Cobden, whose clear and energetic mind was at no loss to master its dark details, and whose generous goodwill has not failed to manifest itself on behalf of these aged people. He has promised, we learn, to aid their cause to the full extent of his influence, and we entirely believe he will do so. We wish to cast no slur upon any parliamentary personage who has hitherto interested himself on the behalf of-we will not say the Cort family, but the national honour, which has been stained by the treatment of that family. But we do say we would rather hear that Richard Cobden had whispered one syllable in favour of the cause, than learn that all the others whom we have named had agreed to promote it together. And this we say because we believe Mr. Cobden is a man of sounder sense and purer integrity than most of our great politicians. We say nothing here either in favour of or against his political principles; but we do believe him to be as sensible and reliable a man as there is in Parliament. He is consequently very influential in those counties in which he is best known, and we doubt not he will find means of using his influence for the furtherance of justice in the Cort case. It will indeed redound to the honour of Mr. Cobden, Mr. Fairbairn, and the friends of each of these gentlemen, as well as to the honour of Lancashire and Yorkshire, if the great manufacturers of those counties conduct this case to an honourable conclusion. They may well do so; for the inventions of Henry Cort, by giving us the iron of the steam engine, have benefited every branch of manufacture in which machinery is employed-the cotton trade to the extent of many millions sterling annually. We need not say what Cort did for Free Trade. He was really a promoter of that great modern movement; nay, he it was who taught us the secret of our own iron-producing power, and thus laid the basis on which so much of our modern trade and manufacture rests; while by aid of his great inventions the markets of Europe have been brought into instantaneous communication with Great Britain. All that Cort did was done, moreover, by means of native materials which were useless up to this time, and by the exclusive exercise of native labour.

It is stated that the design for the floating batteries intended to be used by the French on the Lago di Garda originated in England,

opinion, is it to be distinguished by any of these circumstances whether or no the cold air has been used. The iron bottoms occasioned such labour to the workmen that we could not continue them; but we found no advantage in continue them, at least he covers them over IT can create no surprise that Cort's works at with sand. Mr. Tait, some time ago, having Fontley should have so soon acquired great much commended Peter's iron, I asked permisnotoriety, and be visited by the representatives sion of Mr. Lewis to send down T. Cook. I or agents of most of the principal iron masters. had never seen but one heat worked, and I Richard Crawshay and James Cockshutt had thought it probable they might have improved: visited, in 1787, "the little mill at Fontley," as but T. C. returned disappointed, and says they the former designated it in a letter to Lord do not work near so well as we do. In return Sheffield's secretary. At that time Crawshay for this liberty, one of Mr. Lewis's men (Daniel was not forging more than ten tons per week at Onions) was sent up immediately after to see his Welsh works; he was too shrewd a charac- what we were doing. He first saw a heat 2! ter not to appreciate the labours of Cort, or to cwt. weighed to Theodo. He attended the workundervalue such a rival. He forthwith engaged ing; he saw one of the balls drawn out, aud with Cort for the erection of puddling furnaces took a bit of the iron with him; it was all and grooved rollers at Cyfartha, which were tough, and I think of a brighter colour than any completed by his resident partner, James Cock- I had seen. The yield was 20 lbs. blooms from shutt, under Cort's superintendence. The Cy- 26 cwt. 1 qr. 21 lbs. He told me we beat them fartha new mill (as stated upon the authority of much in every respect, but told James Burch Mr. R. Thompson) turned out 200 tons weekly we made better dispatch and yield, but fell of excellent bars with the same labour pre-short of them in quality; and this they continue viously engaged in shingling and stamping out to give out. Our neighbour J. H. having deterwith the hammer the (according to our present mined to work under your patent entitled him ideas) insignificant amount of 10 tons weekly. to our best assistance. We first gave him the Mr. Samuel Homfray, at the neighbouring dimensions for his furnace, and let him have works of Pændarran, was equally alive to the man to built it; and we also spared him importance of, and not slow to appreciate, Cort's Thomas Gates for work, as I would much rather inventions; and, according to the statement in see the general success of the scheme than aim a letter from Mr. Cockshutt, borrowed of him at any little exultation over him. The iron he the drawings of the puddling furnaces, the pat- makes draws and looks very well, and he allows terns of the rolls, and Cort's workmen for himself that it draws sounder than their own, instruction in the operations; and contracts which is really true of so much as I have seen were signed for the payment to Cort of 10s. per of it. But he has lately received but an unton of bar iron, as the licence due or royalty favourable account of a small quantity which under his two patents. he sent into the north, of which his father complains that it will not bear slitting, but falls to pieces, and even that those rods which do not break he can shake it to pieces; yet he says the iron works well under the nailors' hammer, and makes handsome nails. You have had abundant trials of our iron; that which I saw slit at

The following letters, or portions of letters,
which have been preserved, will be read with
interest as contemporaneous accounts of, or
throwing light on, the preceding:-

Kitley, 25th of 2nd month, Feb., 1789.
"RESPECTED FRIEND, HENRY CORT,-We are
duly favoured with thine of the 19th inst., and in
reply we are not quite so forward with our rolls
as we expected by this time we should have
been. It is our intention to have only one pair,
and we have eight grooves in them beginning
with a 3-in. one nearly round, and going less to
a square. We have one welding furnace
nearly ready, and it will give us pleasure if you
can spare the man who has been used to the
business to put ours in a way. It will give us
additional pleasure if thou soon recovers from
thy indisposition so as to be able to come up
and see us make the first trial, and we are in the
meantime,

a

Fontley showed no inclination to fall to pieces,
What S. Homfray may do now he has taken
nor have I heard such a complaint from you.
brother, I cannot say; whether he will pursue the
upon him the management, in the place of his
plan, or whether if he does, he will submit to his
otherwise. We have lately drawn out a quantity
brother's proposals to you; he has often said
of your iron in which we find a good deal of
vanity, though the blooms look equally well; but
I am convinced it is by rolling the toughness is
adapted for that purpose.
to be acquired, and your iron is particularly

"The substance of my information to Mr. Gibbins respecting yield, &c., was that 30 lbs. of pigs would produce 22 lbs. of blooms, upon which I was inclined to believe something more than 20 lb. of bars would be made; but we had had little experience in drawing out, and would not speak certainly upon that subject; we had also made blooms with little more than the weight of metal in coals used, taking a furnace ready for charging; but this was with greater care than could always be used, and, therefore, a larger quantity must be allowed.

(Signed) "WILLIAM REYNOLDS & Co." "Cyfartha, April 5th, 1789. "DEAR SIR,-I have delayed answering your last favour of the 8th past longer than I intended that I might advise you of the cargo of blooms and pig iron sent to Gosport, of which at foot you shall have an account. Since I have had any intercourse or exchange of letters with you we have made many careful trials with a stream of cold, after P. Onion's plan, in all of which T. Gales has been the principal "Furnace building, 1s. 9d., including bricks; workman. We have tried both Plymouth and making and slinging blooms, 20s. per 22 lbs. Cyfartha metal, also sand-iron bottoms, both This letter was dated January, '88, since then I with and without blast, to which not only my-have not heard from them, but I believe Mr. self but my two colleagues also attended, that Crawshay had, by whom you will have been their opinion might be added in a joint report informed what passed from our late experience upon the business to our friend Mr. Crawshay; in drawing. We find it requires more than 22 and it is our opinion that no kind of change is lb. of blooms to a ton. of bars. I am desired produced from the use of cold air, as used by P. to send a ton of our bars made after your proOnions. It does not bear the hammer better; cess to Stourton, which I am inclined to do. it is not better in colour or texture; nor, in our

(Signed) "JAMES COCKSHUTT."

"Plymouth blooms are marked with two

strokes of white lead; Cyfartha with one; Ply- WHAT IS TO BE DONE WITH OUR SAILING SHIPS OF WAR? mouth pigs without any mark; the Cyfartha has one stroke of white lead; other particulars you have heard from H. Charles."

On the 11th of March, 1789, Messrs. J. Homfray and Co., of Pendarran, write as follows:

"DEAR SIR,-Am much obliged for yours of the 19th of February, and the other side send you an account of our performance." The letter, which is mutilated and imperfect, contains the following passage:-"So satisfied myself about it that I shall provide no more blast than is necessary for a blowing a furnace in a new concern I am about establishing upon these mountains, supposing all blast in future as unnecessary in manufacturing bar iron. The new forge at Cyfartha, upon your plan, is a noble thing, and does great credit to those gentlemen there; they are driving it forward with great spirit, and will constantly turn out about 30 tons a week of blooms; they are now drawing some for London. Your rolling mills, not only for these blooms, but for all *** makes them beautiful iron. I have been to Bristol since, but could not meet with M. Trueman Harford to hear his opinion, but found from the iron weigher that 15 cwt. of it had been sold; and one smith had told him that it worked very well, and punched famously; this we find to be the case in our own shops. The Port iron will be slit at Stourton, and worked under my father and brothers Sam. and Tom's own eye, who are both very anxious for its well-doing, and impatient for its trial. I have no doubt ** Mr. Cockshutt desires to join me in remembrance."

"February 21, 1789. Pigs del patent furnace 3 tons 13 cwt. 3 qr. 7lb produced blooms, 2 tons 8 cwt. 1 qr. 29 lb.; bars, 2 tons. 1 cwt. qr. 20 lb.

1

"Takes 1 ton 10 cwt. 1 qr. 23 lb. pigs to make 20 cwt. blooms, and 1 ton 15 cwt. 2 qr. 17 lb. pigs to 20 cwt. bars.

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Chaffery takes 1 ton 3 cwt. 1 qr. 19 lb. blooms to make 20 cwt. bars.

"Coals used in the furnace, 6 tons 12 cwt. The judgment of the most competent persons was unanimous in favour of the merits of Cort's invention; the trials in the public Dockyards, the condition of the Navy Board requiring the use of Cort's iron only, were conclusive as to the success of the process. The acts and opinions of the individual ironmasters, could leave no doubt as to the enormous value of the new processes; they took or entered into contracts for licences upon terms freely and liberally conceded on both sides; they expended large amounts of capital for the erection of works, which in a few years would have produced bar iron sufficient to yield ample remuneration to Cort, and a princely fortune for his thirteen children. Cort and his results stand unparalleled in the history of invention and inventions as a case in which the merit of the invention should be universally conceded almost immediately after its announcement, and the rights of the inventor should be so universally acquiesced in by the trade, some of whom were the owners of or interested in prior inventions. The sequel will disclose a case unparalleled both as regards the character of the transactions and the consequences to the individual

concerned.

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TO THE EDITORS OF THE

MECHANICS' MAGAZINE." London, August 17, 1859. GENTLEMEN. My mind has been occupied for some time with the consideration of a mode of rendering our sailing ships effective as ships of war; but as the subject involves questions which can only be satisfactorily answered by seamen, I request the favour of the publication of the following thoughts concerning it, in the hope that some of the many naval gentlemen who appear to take an interest in a mechanical journal will endeavour to throw light upon it. Omitting those sailing ships now in process of conversion, those which have been appropriated as depots of various kinds, and all whose age exceeds forty years, we have still a fleet of at least 80 line-of-battle ships and frigates which have not yet reached the age of decrepitude. Their ages, reckoning from the dates of launching, ten to twenty years; three between twenty and are as follows:-Seven line-of-battle ships of from thirty years, and twelve between thirty and forty years. Of frigates carrying between 40 and 50 guns, thirteen of from ten to twenty years, seven between twenty and thirty years, and twenty-two between thirty and forty years, and of smaller frigates, nine of from ten to twenty years, and eight between twenty and thirty years. How many of these may be the victims of premature decay I know not, but that age alone has not incapacitated them for service, supposing them to have undergone the ordinary periodical repairs, will appear from the consideration, that of the ships whose soundness of constitution has justified their conversion into steam ships, the Nelson is 45 years of age; the Neptune 27; the Royal William, the Waterloo, and the Rodney 26. Supposing, then, that the majority of these ships are too old, as they certainly are, to justify the expenditure of large sums in lengthening them to receive engines, and are yet in sufficiently good condition with moderate repair to take the sea as sailing ships, I propose to inquire whether they could, under the altered circumstances of naval warfare, be made efficient fighting ships without the aid of steam power.

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It is pretty generally acknowledged, that so long as a screw steam-ship has the power of lying at pleasure across the bows or the stern of a sailing ship, and sweeping the whole length of her decks with a broadside, the sailing ship must be overmatched, although greatly superior in strength to her adversary. And I do not doubt that in the event of war with a maritime power, all the sailing ships now on Foreign Service would be on this account instantly recalled.

This disadvantage would be completely removed if the sailing ships possessed the means of turning or changing their positions without the aid of the sails or rudder; and I do not see that in other respects they would be much inferior to converted ships.

Let us suppose a 90-gun ship to be lengthened to receive engines of 450 or 500 horse power at a ing from ships like the Algiers and Hannibal, that cost of £50,000 or £60,000. It would seem, judg

we could not expect to get more than nine knots

Now,

per hour out of her. In the "Nile" engines of 500 horse power do not give seven knots. it is difficult to see what advantage such a ship would possess in a contest with the Shannon, say, of 50 guns, and having a speed of nearly twelve knots per hour, which she would not have possessed had she remained a sailing ship, and been fitted with the means of changing her position which I have suggested. Her conversion has only made her far more vulnerable; her engines, her screw, and her weak rudder-post are all vital points, and are all exposed to fire. Her screw is, moreover, constantly liable to be fouled by the wreck of her own spars, or of those of an enemy. It cannot be doubted that there are some circumstances, especially those connected with the evolutions of a fleet, under which the steam power would be very valuable, but we cannot doubt, on the other hand, that the vulnerability I have pointed out deserves serious consideration-far more serious consideration, I believe, than it is likely to receive until we have learned the bitter lessons of experience.

I am not desirous of proving that the sailing

ship may be made superior to the slow and vulnerable screw ship for war purposes, but I am most certainly of opinion that these sailing ships of ours may be made available for service on foreign stations, so to avoid the great expense connected with the constant use of auxiliary steam-power, and to augment the fleet for home defence by those steam-ships which are now wasting their 60 or 70 tons of coal per day in doing what could be as well done by sailing ships. There would be this advantage, too, in the plan proposed, viz., that nearly every ship fitted in this way would be clear gain in comparing our strength with that of France, as she has but few sailing ships left. I

I have stated all this with hesitation because do not feel competent to decide upon the questions involved: but this I say confidently, that if the possession of the means of turning without the aid of rudder or sails would do what I have supposed, it may be cheaply and quickly obtained. Nothing more is necessary than to cut a hole in the deadwood to receive a screw capable of motion in a vertical longitudinal plane by means of manual or other power on board. The amount of power required may be readily ascertained by comparison with the rudder. A ship would have good steerage way with a speed of six knots; in other words, a rudder moving through the water at this speed would certainly encounter sufficient resistance to turn the ship. But as the rudder is never inclined at a greater angle than 30 to the line of the keel, the normal or effective velocity of the water on the rudder would only be three knots. If, therefore, a screw of sufficient size is made to revolve fast enough to give a velocity in advance of three knots, it is likely to do more towards turning the ship than a rudder hard over, because the thrust is more direct. Now, a screw ten feet in diameter, two feet long, and with twelve feet pitch, could be easily fitted in a frigate without weakening her or diminishing her stowage. Such a screw would, with twenty-five-revolutions per minute, move through the water in advance with a velocity of three knots per hour. The indicated horse-power corresponding to this

would be, if the screw were under the same circumstances as the propelling screws, about 71. It may, therefore, be fairly assumed that nine or ten horse-power, applied by means of capstans, or if it were thought desirable, by a small donkeyengine, would be sufficient to turn a 50-gun frigate as rapidly as she would be turned by her rudder with a steerage way of six knots. Such a screw would be ten or twelve feet below the water, and entirely within the ship, so as to offer little

BOYDELL'S TRACTION ENGINE.

DURING last week the capabilities of this admir-
Park previous to the engine and its train of
able road locomotive were publicly tested in Hyde
waggons being despatched to Bombay, in accord-
India. The engine is perfectly under control, even
ance with the wish of the Secretary of State for
for the sharpest turnings of ordinary streets, and
easy both in ascent and descent of steep inclines.
This endless rail acted with the most perfect
before stated, that the engine could not only
satisfaction, quite bearing out what has been
travel over the worst roads, but that the roadway
itself is actually improved by the equal and broad
compression of the rails. The engine can with
ease draw from 60 to 70 tons along ordinary
turnpike roads at the rate of four miles per hour.
Attached to the machine were five powerful
Waggons specially made for the purpose by Cres-
kill, and all of which, by removing a pin or pivot
from between the two leading wheels, are enabled
like movement, which gives the utmost freedom
to follow every turn of the engine, with a serpent-
and flexibility to the whole convoy. More than
once the whole train turned in less than half its
length, and that, too, in passing over grass and
uneven ground. The indentation made by the
passage of the wheels was certainly no more than
would have been made by an ordinary coal
attendance and rode in the waggons, and with
160 soldiers of the Guards were in
this load the whole train was taken easily across
the level parts of the Park at the rate of six miles
an hour.
The result of the trials were in the
highest degree satisfactory, and seems to leave no
doubt whatever that over the rough roads of India
during the summer season, when the rivers are
dry, the engines will be of the utmost service in
military purposes, such as getting up guns and
facilitating the transmission of merchandise. For
siege stores, an engine of the kind would prove an
invaluable auxiliary. Two have been ordered for
the Pasha of Egypt for the purpose of traversing
less many more will be sent to India.
the deserts with caravans, and before long doubt-

waggon.

JENSEN'S MARINE ENGINE GOVERNOR.
TO THE EDITORS OF THE "MECHANICS' MAGAZINE."

GENTLEMEN,-Will you allow me to offer a few remarks on an invention of Mr. P. Jenson, as described in your columns, for regulating the speed of marine engines during severe gales. The chinery, to shut off the steam at the moment the inventor proposes, by means of self-acting maresistance to motion. In the section which accompanies this letter the screw is shown in the water descends from under the paddles; then to horizontal position, which, being that of least admit it into the engines as soon as the waves resistance, would always be assumed when the arise to their ordinary level. The arrangements, vsel was in motion, supposing the screw to be it must be admitted, are very simple, and the allowed to move freely. The only resistance of principle will probably appear very plausible to But there is no difficulty in any consequence caused by the introduction of many persons. the apparatus would then be the negative and would fail to accomplish the object in view. Mr. demonstrating that the arrangements proposed positive pressures at the fore and after ends of Jensen has evidently lost sight of the fact that, the aperture. These might be reduced if it were when engines have attained their full speed, each found desirable by hanging slight metal shutters stroke of the piston becomes independent of the over the upper portion of the aperture. Some of action of the steam; and, consequently, that the your readers may remember that a proposition was made some fifteen years ago by a Mr. Foulerton, shutting off of the steam would not instantaneously master mariner, to fit all kinds of sailing and diminish the speed of the screw or paddles. The screw ships with an apparatus of this kind to assist only result that would be obtained by adopting the vessel in stays, and to enable her to ma- this invention, would be to check the speed of the nouvre after the loss of the rudder. It was enter-engines at the moment when great power would tained by the Admiralty, and a screw was fitted by Mr. Foulerton in the St. Lawrence frigate. As it was only 3 feet 6 in. in diameter it failed, as might have been expected. All the reasons for its adoption urged by him upon the Admiralty still exist, and with the special one I have here endeavoured to point out.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant,

A NAVAL ARCHITECT. BEFERENCES TO ENGRAVING ON OPPOSITE PAGE.

Elevation and Section of the after part of the 84-gun

sailing ships, showing the proposed mode of fitting a 10

bet steering screw. a, Load water-line; b, Orlop deck; 6, Inner stern-post; d, Watertight trunk; e, An endless band passing up the trunk to an axle, f, which is turned by manual or other power.

be required; that is, when the waves would strike
against the paddles, causing a deeper immersion.
The steam, it is true, would be admitted at that
the engines until the moment when greater speed
moment, but this would not increase the speed of
would be more than useless; for, by the time the
steam would have given a full impetus to the
engines, the paddles would, probably, be again
whirling in the air. Every engineer who has
watched the working of marine engines when
sailing over a heavy sea, well knows the inconve-
niences and dangers of the present arrangements;
but it is far easier to see the extent of the evil,
than it is to provide an efficient remedy. When
the screw and paddles are combined in the same

vessel, the evil complained of will be diminished some extent, provided all the engines are con nected. The screw and paddles would act tolerably fly wheels in stationary engines, and I imagine as governors, somewhat on the same principle as engines of not less than 800 horse-power, provided that principle might be adopted in vessels with the screw shaft could be efficiently connected with the paddle engines. Probably the resu t would be that a high speed could be maintained while sailing over a heavy sea, with a head wind, sumption of fuel, as at present. If I am wrong without having recourse to an increased conin these surmises, probably some of your correspondents will set me right.

I remain, Gentlemen, very respectfully, JOHN DE LA HAYE. Perth, August 16th, 1859.

66

IMPROVED RIFLE FIRE-BRAND. TO THE EDITORS OF THE MECHANICS' MAGAZINE." phosphorous dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, which GENTLEMEN,-The rifle-brand, charged with I lately successfully tested at Chatham, with the sanction of his Royal Highness the Commanderin-Chief and the late Secretary for War, was so constructed that its neck was broken on striking loose hanging canvas, when the liquid spread on the canvas and immediately set it on fire. My charged with the liquid placed within. It is then present improved brand has a tube of glass closed in front with a plug of lead. On firing the rifle the glass tube breaks by the jar of the exploded charge. The liquid is diffused in the interior of the brand, and cannot immediately escape from it; but after a few minutes it will percolate through the sap pores of the wood, and burst into flame. This brand is therefore well weeds, &c., that cause no shock to the fall of the adapted for setting fire to long grass, bushes, brand, and will set fire to the vegetation all around a hostile battery of artillery whenever it moves.

I am thus particular in describing its usefulness, because I sometime ago read a speech in the public papers by his Royal Highness the Commander-in-chief, wherein he stated that he should be glad to receive information on military matters from all persons qualified to give it; and als because when I had the honour to attend a Leve? at the Horse Guards more than a year ago, lis Royal Highness was pleased to say, "We ought to be much obliged to you."

charged with the liquid, when all the liquid
I have found that after using a leaden shell
appeared to have burned out, on melting the used
shell in an iron ladle, a portion of the phosphorous,
which remain on the lead in a state of incrusta-
tion, continued to burn for some minutes. This
proves the extraordinary "vitality of the liquid
fire."
J. NORTON.

Rosherville, July 30.

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Some months back Mr. J. Bailey Denton, of Stevenage, published some observations in anticipation of the effects of the drought of last winter in reducing the water supply of the present suminer and are the districts in which the inhabitants are suffering coming autumn. His anticipations are now, he says, being realized, and many are the villages and wide from the want of the first essential of health and comfort, and he again calls the attention of our legis lators and the larger landed proprietors, who are returning to their estates in the country, to the inportance of providing water in the villages of the rural poor. He suggests that means be found to concenwhich runs trate and preserve the drainage and surface water months of winter and spring for use in the summer to waste during the non-evaporating and autumn in those localities where from soil and height there is no constant supply.

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