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CLASSIFICATION.

§ 211. I. CARDINAL Numerals, or Cardinals, which express number in its simplest form, and answer the question How many? as, One, two, three, four, and so on indefinitely. These express the repetition of a substance in space, and are properly attributive. The word one is naturally singular. The rest are naturally plural.

1. Abstract Numerals, expressed either by the preceding numbers used substantively; as, The ones, the tens; by words derived from the Latin; as, Unity, trinity; or by words derived from the Greek; as, Monad, duad.

2. Distributive Numerals (comp. Lat. bini, trini); as, One by one, two by two, by fifties. These are expressed in English only by adverbial phrases.

3. Iterative Numerals; as, Once, twice, thrice. These are the genitives of the abstract numerals used adverbially. The series is continued by means of adverbial phrases; as, Four times, five times; and answers to the question How often?

II. ORDINAL NUMERALS, or Ordinals, which denote a series, and answer the question Which one in the series? as, First, second, third, fourth. The ordinal first is a superlative form derived from the root fore. The word second, contrary to the analogy of the other ordinal, is derived from the Latin secundus. The remainder of the ordinals are derived from the cardinal numerals by the addition of the sound of th, subject to slight variations. In third th becomes d. In fifth the vowel is shortened. In third there is the transposition of the letter r.

Adverbs of order are derived, for the most part, from the preceding, by means of the adverbial affix ly; as, firstly, or, what is better, first, secondly, thirdly, &c., and lastly. In the higher numbers it is necessary to use an adverbial phrase; as, In the eleventh place, in the twelfth place.

III. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS, or Multiplicatives, which show the number of parts of which a whole is composed, and answer the question How many fold? as Single, double, triple or treble, four-fold or quadruple. IV. PARTITIVE NUMERALS; as, Half, a third, a quarter, or fourth part. They are mostly used as substantives.

V. INDEFINITE NUMERALS; as, Many, few, some, all, much, less, several, whole, enough, other, another, only, alone, more, any, none, aught, naught, something, nothing, somewhat, &c.

VI. INDEFINITE QUANTITATIVES; as, Great, little, some, all. They are taken, for the most part, from the indefinite numerals, sometimes by different words; as, Great and little, or large and small (comp. many and few); sometimes by a different construction; as, Some water (comp. some men); all the house (comp. all houses).

The indefinite numerals and quantitatives form antitheses; as, Many opposed to few; great to little; large to small; all to some.

Which are the cardinal numerals? what do they express, and what question_do they answer? Which are the ordinal numerals? what do they denote, and what question do they answer? Which are the multiplicative numerals? what do they denote, and what question do they answer? Which are the partitive numerals, and the indefinite numerals? Which are the indefinite quantitatives?

COMPOUND NUMERALS.

§ 212. In COMPOUND NUMERALS of the ordinal series, it is only the last number that takes the ordinal termination; as, The thirty-third year; the five hundred and twenty-fifth year. When units are combined with tens, they are placed either first, with "and," or last, without "and" (four-and-twenty, or twenty-four); but after a hundred the smaller number is always last; as, A hundred and twenty-four.

PLURAL FORMS.

§ 213. CARDINALS take the plural form, though all except one are naturally plural.

"The sun has long been set,

The stars are out by twos and threes,

The little birds are piping yet

Among the bushes and the trees."-WORDSWORTH.

"We are not to stay altogether, but to come to him where he stands by ones, by twos, and by threes."-SHAKSPEARE.

Numerals are usually classed with adjectives, and called numeral adjectives. Like pronouns, they can be divided, according to their signification and form, into substantive, adjective, and adverbial numerals; as, A hundred; ten men; tenthly.

CHAPTER IV.

THE ARTICLE.

§ 214. THE ARTICLE is a part of speech serving to reduce a noun substantive from a general to a particular signification.

It is a question whether the words AN and THE should be regarded as a distinct part of speech, called the Article, or should be classed with adjectives. It is convenient to class them as a distinct part of speech.

RELATION OF THE ARTICLES TO THE PROPOSITION. § 215. They can not, either of them, like one and that, form the predicate of a proposition. Nor can either of them stand by itself as the subject of a proposition. The can enter into a proposition only as the sign of definiteness; as, The man is mortal. An or a can enter into a proposition only as a sign of indefiniteness; as, A man is mortal. The article can only be a secondary part of speech.

66 99

THE ARTICLE "AN" OR A.

§ 216. 1. The article AN is the Anglo-Saxon án, the

Which are the compound numerals? What is said of plural forms? What is an article? What question has been raised in respect to an and the? State the relation of the articles to the proposition. With what words is the article an identical?

But,

Scotch ane, the Latin unus, and the numeral one. though it is the same in derivation as the numeral one, it differs from it in meaning. A man is more indefinite than one man. The word an can not be used by itself; the word one can. Thus we can say "He sold one," but not " He sold a." It is called the Indefinite Article.

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2. In the Anglo-Saxon, an was used before consonantal sounds as well as vowel sounds. In the English language the n is omitted before consonantal sounds and retained before vowel sounds; as, A man, an eagle, a heart, an hour, a union, a oneness.

3. It is used when we speak of some single object without defining it. For this reason, in comparison with the, it is called the Indefinite Article. It is definite only with respect to number. Like the adjective, it is the same for all genders and cases.

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§ 217. The word THE is called the Definite Article, because it specifies or defines the substantive with which it is conjoined; as, The man, the woman. By these expressions some particular man or woman is signified. It is the same for all genders, and cases, and numbers.

The definite article the has arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun that, or, at least, out of a common root; just as an and a have arisen out of the numeral one. In the Anglo-Saxon there was a form, the, undeclined, and common to all the cases of all the numbers. As an or a

is less definite than one, so is the less definite than that. Were we for the to substitute that, and to say "that man with that long beard," the phrase would more particularly imply real presence, and, indirectly, a sort of contrast with this man with this long beard. An and one, the and that, express different degrees of definiteness. An might with propriety be called the Numeral article, and the the Demonstrative.

COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

§ 218. In Greek there is no indefinite, in Latin there is neither an indefinite nor a definite article. In the Latin, the words filius regis mean equally the son of the king, a son of a king, a son of the king, or the son of a king. In Moso-Gothic and in Old Norse there is an equal absence of the indefinite article.

The origin of articles seems to be uniform. See Eng. Gram., § 287. In no language, in its oldest stage, is there a word giving, in its primary sense, the idea of a or the. As tongues become modern, some

In what cases is an used in the English language, and in what cases is a used? What is an or a called, and why is it so called? In what respect is this article definite? Why is the called the definite article? From what is the definite article the derived? Mention some languages which are destitute of one or both articles. What is said of the Latin in this connection?

word with a similar sense is used to express them. In the course of time a change of form takes place corresponding to the change of meaning, e. g., one becomes an, and afterward a. Then it is that arti

cles become looked upon as separate parts of speech.

"There is a the which originated from the Anglo-Saxon thy, that, and is different from the the which originated from the Anglo-Saxon the. The latter is the common article. The former is the the in expressions like all the more, all the better=more by all that, better by all that, and the Latin phrases eo majus, eo melius." For some of these views, see LATHAM on the English Language.

CHAPTER V.

THE PRONOUN.

§ 219. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun; as, "I went to London ;" "thou hast done a good action;"" he will return.

Or a Pronoun is a word which can be used instead of a noun, either as the subject or the predicate of proposition; as, “The man is happy; he is benevolent;" "I am he."

The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word pronomen, which signifies for a noun. Pronouns have been called substitutes, inasmuch as some of them stand not only for nouns, but also for adjectives, for a sentence or part of a sentence, or a series of propositions.

Pronouns are relational words, or form-words, according to Becker's classification. They do not, like substantives, express the idea of an object, but only the relation of an object to the speaker, since they show whether the object is the speaker himself (the first person), or the person or thing addressed (the second person), or the person or thing spoken of (the third person); e. g., I (the teacher) give to you (the scholar) it (the book).

CLASSIFICATION.

§ 220. I. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is a pronoun whose form shows of what person it is without reference to the construction in which it is used.

The personal pronouns are I, of the first person; thou, of the second person; he, she, and it, of the third person. It should be remembered that nouns are naturally of the third person.

II. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which eminently points out the objects to which it relates.

What is said of another the? Give the definition of a pronoun, and the derivation of the term. What is a personal pronoun? and a demonstrative pronoun?

The demonstrative pronouns are this and that, with their plurals, these and those, and perhaps such and

same.

III. A RELATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which stands for some preceding word or phrase called the antecedent, and performs the office of a conjunction in connecting

sentences.

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what. IV. An INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun used in asking questions.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. V. An ADJECTIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which partakes of the nature of the adjective. VI. An ADVERBIAL PRONOUN is partakes of the nature of an adverb.

See § 198.
a pronoun which
See § 291.

THE EXTENT OF PRONOUNS.

§ 221. The extent of this part of speech in different languages has been variously defined. In Sanscrit grammar, the number of pronouns is especially great, embracing such words as nemas, half; alpas, a little; êkas, one; dakshinas, on the right or southern; awaras, behind, &c.

THE VALUE OF PRONOUNS.

§ 222. Pronouns act a very important part in etymology. The pronominal roots enter into the personal inflection of verbs, and into the cases of nouns, and give rise to many adverbs, and to a large proportion of the conjunctions.

It has been said that pronouns are employed to prevent the tiresome repetition of nouns. But they do something more. I and thou, for example, are not the mere substitutes of the names of the persons for whom they stand, but involve the personality of the speaker and of the person spoken to, and the relation between them, and bestow personality on whatsoever they are applied to. See § 228.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

§ 223. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is a pronoun whose form shows of what person it is, without reference to the construction in which it is used.

There are five pronouns called PERSONAL, namely, I, THOU, HE, SHE, What is a relative pronoun? and an interrogative pronoun? and an adjective pronoun? and an adverbial pronoun? Is the extent of pronouns the same in different languages? What can you say of the importance and value of pronouns? What is a personal pronoun? How many personal pronouns are there? Mention them.

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