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is not in the Latin or Greek. Latin has.

6. It has not the letter q, which the 7. It has not the letter z. 8. It has not the letter v, which

the Roman has. It may have borrowed the letters p, 8, from the Moso-Gothic, which, though for the most part it borrowed its alphabet from the Greek and Latin, may have borrowed them from the Runic, an alphabet of great antiquity, and long used in the north of Europe.

Under the influence of the Norman French, the Anglo-Saxon Alphabet underwent some changes. The sound system of that language, derived from the Latin, bore a greater resemblance to that of the Romans than was to be found among the Gothic tongues. It was through the Norman influence that the letters p, , unfortunately were dropped from the language. In other respects the alphabet was improved. The letters z, k, j, were either imported or more currently recognized.— LATHAM'S English Language, p. 206, 207.

OLD ENGLISH ALPHABET.

§ 164. The alphabet received from the Anglo-Saxons, modified by the Normans, underwent some other modifications. The letter 3, a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon g, is found in Old English manuscripts. It sometimes is equivalent to our g, sometimes to y, and sometimes to gh. It has properly no connection with the letter z, for which it has sometimes been improperly used. The character employed was the black letter, or the Gothic. Of these there were varieties, as the "set chancery,' ," "chancery," "running court."

In time, the Roman character was introduced into modern English, and also the Italian, so called from the types used by Italian printers. Ligatures, that is, double letters, like A, fl, were formerly more frequently used than now, as were also double vowels, like a, œ. The character was laid aside, g or y taking its place.

Thus we have seen how the English Alphabet was derived from the Phoenician Alphabet, through the Greek, and the Roman, and the Anglo-Saxon Alphabets.

CHAPTER V.

ORTHOGRAPHICAL EXPEDIENTS.

§ 165. To remedy the defects of the alphabet, certain ORTHOGRAPHICAL EXPEDIENTS are extensively employed, especially in expressing the quantity of the vowels.

The Long or Independent sounds of vowels are indicated in English orthography in several different ways.

1. The duplication of the letters, as in meet, door, seemly. Here the duplication indicates the long sound of e and the long sound of o. This expedient was adopted at an early period in the history of the language,

What is said of the Old English Alphabet? For what purpose are orthographical expedients especially employed? In what several modes is the long sound of the vowel expressed?

But these in

as is seen in words like wyyf (wife), lyyf (life), wee (we). dications are not to be relied on, inasmuch as the double vowel letter often represents a short vowel sound, as in took, book, flood.

2. The diphthongal notation, as in rain, meat, groan, soul, bowl. Here the addition of one vowel indicates the long sound of a, of e, and of o. Still there is no distinctness in the indication, inasmuch as the two last words might be taken to rhyme with foul and howl.

3. A silent e, as in fame, shade, mode. Here the silent e indicates the long sound of a and o. Anciently, such words were pronounced in two syllables. When this pronunciation ceased, the spelling remained, and the e mute indicates the long sound of the other vowel. Still the indication is imperfect, inasmuch as it can not be continued in derivatives like famous, shady, modish, which might be taken to sound like famine, shadow, model.

4. A silent consonant, as in climb, talk, resign. Here the silent consonants b, l, g, indicate the long sound of a and i. This indication is useful to those who are acquainted with it, but others it would lead into

error.

5. The duplication of a consonant, as in better, torrent, is an orthographical expedient to indicate the Short or Dependent sound of the preceding vowel. This has long been the habit of the language. But the duplication of the consonant in some other cases seems to indicate the long sound of the vowel, as in roll, tall.

In a poem called "The Ormulum," every short vowel was indicated by a double consonant, as waterr, filledd.

6. The use of c before k is sometimes an orthographical expedient to indicate the short or dependent sound of the preceding vowel, as in pickle. K is never doubled.

7. The use of u after g is an orthographical expedient indicating the surd sound of g, as in guile, prorogue.

8. "The use of th for the simple sound of the first consonant in thin and thine is an orthographical expedient. The combination must be dealt with as a single letter."

9. The use of d before g, as in edge, abridge, budge, lodge, is an orthographical expedient showing that the vowel is short.

Elementary sounds, then, in the English language, are expressed, I. By single appropriate elementary signs; as, in the words law and bar the first elementary sound in each is normally represented by the letter / or b.

II. By single elementary signs used abnormally or irregularly; as, in the words many, design, the a in the first, the s in the second, are used irregularly, the one to represent the sound normally represented by e, and the other the sound normally represented by z.

III. By conventional expedients as above described.

Of these three modes, the first is greatly to be preferred, as being regular, and as promoting consistency in the language. The second and third are not to be encouraged, inasmuch as they introduce irregularity and confusion.

In what several modes is the short sound of the vowel expressed? What is said of the use of c before k? What is said of the use of u after g? In what three ways are elementary sounds expressed? Which of these three modes is to be preferred, and why?

CHAPTER VI.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

IN WHAT ORTHOGRAPHY CONSISTS.

§ 166. ORTHOGRAPHY, or right spelling of a word, consists in the use of those letters which best agree, first, with its Pronunciation; second, with its Etymology; and third, with the Analogies of the English language, particularly of that class of words to which it belongs.

A person acquainted only with the general power of the letters, but ignorant of the intricacies of English orthography, will very likely use those letters which merely express the sounds of the words which he employs, irrespective of the other two particulars. For thought he would write thaut. An etymologist would be inclined to adopt that spelling which would best give the history of the word. For governor he would very likely write governour. A spelling-book maker would, in forming his tables, have his mind fixed on the analogy of particular classes of words, and withdrawn from the other two particulars. But, in order to form a correct system of orthography, one must, instead of leaning to one of these modes, comprehend them all in his view, giving to each its due prominence, and at once expressing the Sounds of words, their Histories and Analogies.

INCONSISTENCIES OF ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY.

§ 167. The inconsistencies of English orthography might be inferred from the examples under equivalent letters, § 153. They are still more strikingly seen in the following examples, in which the same sounds are expressed by different letters, or different sounds are expressed by the same letters. In the case of done, the analogical spelling would be rone, the actual spelling is (run). So eight, leight (late); thigh, trigh (try); design, lign (line); two, dwo (do); hearty, pearty (party); learn, tearn (turn); such, tuch (touch); double, bouble (bubble); despair, thair (there); beauty, deauty (duty); said, haid (head); laughter, aughter (after).

B makes road broad; c makes limb climb; d turns a crow into a crowd; e turns yes into eyes; ƒ turns the lower regions into flower regions; g makes one gone; h turns eight into height; k makes now know; 7 changes a pear into a pearl; n changes a crow into a crown; p changes

In what does orthography or right spelling consist? Can you mention any facts which exhibit the inconsistencies of English orthography?

a rover into a prover; s changes hall into shall; t turns here into there; w turns omen into women; y turns ours into yours.-PITMAN's Phonetic Journal.

For plans of reform, see English Grammar, § 226.

DOUBTFUL ORTHOGRAPHY.

§ 168. There are in the English language as many as four thousand words whose orthography is given in different forms by different modern dictionaries. The authors and editors of those dictionaries, or most of them, have felt that reform was necessary, and therefore have set up to be reformers; some of them leaning to usage, some to etymology, some to the analogies of the language, some to convenience, or other considerations.

USAGE.

§ 169. It is often asserted that USAGE or CUSTOM is the sovereign arbiter in all matters pertaining to language. "But what is this custom to which we must so implicitly submit? Is it the multitude of speakers [spellers], whether good or bad? This has never been asserted by the most sanguine abettors of its authority. Is it the usage of the studious in schools and colleges, with those of the learned professions, or that of those who, from their elevated birth and station, give laws to the refinements and elegancies of a court? To confine propriety to the latter, which is too often the case, seems an injury to the former, who, from their very profession, appear to have a natural right to a share, at least, in the legislation of language, if not an absolute sovereignty."-WALKER'S Preface to his Dictionary, p. 5.

Usage is not uniform. There is ancient usage and present usage, general usage and local usage. Custom or usage, therefore, in given cases of doubtful orthography, must be an uncertain guide, because it is divided; and, even if it were undivided, it might be contrary to other important considerations.

THE NORMAL USE OF THE LETTERS.

§ 170. The normal use of the letters in representing the elementary sounds in the language, and also the anomalous use in representing the same sounds. What the normal use of the letters is may be seen from the Table of Elementary Sounds, § 127. What is the anomalous use may be seen from § 153, on equivalent letters. The sound of a in ap is normal; it is the second elementary sound, represented by the letter a in its normal use. The sound of a in any is anomalous; it is the seventh elementary sound in the table, normally represented by e, and anomalously represented by a. Other things being equal, the normal use of the letters should, in orthography, be preferred to their anomalous use, as authorize in preference to authorise. The consonantal sound in the last is normally represented by z, but anomalously by s.

Mention the number of words in the language differently spelled in different dictionaries. What is the value of usage for settling any cases of doubtful orthography? What is said of the normal use of letters in orthography?

Besides the normal use of the letters, regard must be had, 1. to the value of silent letters; 2. to etymological facts and reasons; 3. to the analogies of the English language; 4. to change in pronunciation; 5. to the tendency of the language.

See English Grammar, § 231, 232, &c.

GRAMMAR.

§ 171. GRAMMAR-French grammaire, Greek gramma, a letter as a science, is a system of principles common to all languages. These principles relate to Articulate Sounds; to Letters; to Syllables; to Words; to Sentences.

Grammar, as an art, is a system of rules for the practical application of these principles to language.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

§ 172. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, as a science, is a system of principles and a collection of facts peculiar to the English language, together with those which are common, also, to other languages.

English Grammar, as an art, is a system of rules for the practical application of these principles to the English language.

In the study of English Grammar, the end aimed at is, I. An acquaintance with those facts and principles which pertain to the science; II. A familiarity with the rules for the application of those principles to practice. He who, in his practice of writing and speaking, applies these principles, thus making science the minister of art, speaks and writes the English language correctly.

EXERCISES UNDER PART III.

ORTHOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS.

§ 173. By ORTHOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS is meant that process by which each element of the written language, namely, each letter, is separated from the orthographic form in which it is used, and referred to the classification in §126, and its local representative power described, according to § 127.

What is Grammar as a science and as an art? What is the difference between science and art? What is English Grammar as a science and as an art?

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