American cotton in press-packed bales stows in about 130 cu. ft. to the ton, and for unpressed bales about 200 ft. are required. There are about 4 bales to the ton.

East Indian hard-pressed bales measure about 50 ft. to the ton, at 4 bales to the ton.

Timber.

There are numerous kinds of timber, and special experience is required on the part of the stevedore loading or discharging these cargoes. Cargoes from the White Sea, Baltic, Canada, and the United States usually consist of pieces of varying length and size, which makes the stowage of them to the best advantage somewhat slow and difficult.

Wood is usually carried on deck as well as in the holds, and regulations are made by the Board of Trade in regard to the height to which light wood may be stowed on deck, and the classes of ships approved for the purpose of carrying heavy wood cargo on deck. The regulations have been framed for the safety of the vessel and crew, and the Act may be referred to for details.

The loading and discharging of wood cargoes is usually by steamer's winch, unless heavy pieces are involved, when cranes would be required.

WHITE SEA TIMBER.

This is a seasonal cargo, as the White Sea is closed by ice for a considerable portion of the year, the open season being from May till about the end of the year. The cargoes consist of deals, boards, and battens, with a percentage of "ends " (short pieces) for broken stowage. It is important to have a copy of the scale rates for loading before voyage estimates are made out, as some classes of timber are loaded at a considerably quicker rate per hatch per day than others, which may affect, materially, the results of a voyage.

The most suitable vessels are those of about 1,000 to 1,100 maximum standard capacity, with large hatches, clear holds and decks, and light draft, the harbours in the White Sea being shallow. A vessel of 3,200 to 3,300 tons total deadweight (cargo and bunkers), with an average good cargo from the White Sea to an East Coast of England port, may be reckoned to carry about 1,000 St. Petersburg Standards (165 cu. ft.) on and under deck.

BALTIC TIMBER. A large trade in wood cargoes from the Baltic ports is carried on, consisting chiefly of deals, boards, and battens of spruce, birch, etc. Many of the Baltic ports are closed by ice in the winter season, the close season varying for different ports, and certain ports are also kept open by ice-breakers. Owing to the shorter steaming distance from the Baltic ports, reducing the bunker coal to be carried, a slightly larger quantity of cargo can be carried than from the White Sea.

AMERICAN TIMBER. Large cargoes of sawn and hewn pitch pine, reckoned per St. Petersburg Standard, are shipped at the United States Atlantic timber ports, and from Canada, and the States Pacific ports also export lumber by tramp steamer. Timber does not stow in its cubic measurement, as considerable space is lost owing to the round or rounded and irregular shapes of the pieces. Cargoes from the Pacific coast are often reckoned per mille, equal to 1,000 superficial feet.

JARRAH WOOD. This wood, shipped from Australian ports, is a very heavy wood, and freight is charged per load of 50 cu. ft. PIT PROPS. Cargoes of pit props are obtainable from the Baltic, French Bay ports, and America, freight being reckoned per fathom of 216 cu. ft., or per ton (from Bay ports).

The St. Petersburg Standard hundred contains 120 pieces 12 ft. by 1 in. by 11 in., equal to 165 cu. ft., and a standard of birch and spruce deals stows in approximately 225 to 230 cu. ft.

Deals, battens, scantlings, rough boards, and pitch pine rough timber pay freight per standard.

Squared timber is usually per load of 50 cu. ft.

Jarrah wood is a heavy wood, weighing 33 to 35 cwts. per load. Sawn timber shipped on the Pacific Coast of America is usually reckoned per mille, equal to 1,000 super. ft. (say about A standard (165 cu. ft.) is equal to 1,980 super. ft.

Fruit.

standard).

Considerable chartering of tonnage for fruit takes place during the season. This is a perishable cargo, and precautions in regard to ventilation are required, an unceasing flow of fresh air through the holds being desirable, where possible.

Care in the loading and discharging of fruit is required to prevent breakage of the packages and consequent loss, and a careful tally of the numbers of packages must be kept.

Sugar.

Sugar cargoes from Java and Cuba are common tramp cargoes, and careful dunnaging is required to prevent the bags being damaged by contact. Sugar may also be carried in baskets. No hooks are allowed to be used in loading or discharging. The discharge is in the ordinary way by the steamer's winches, a careful tally being kept of the number of bags landed.

The large steamers employed in this trade can carry, approximately, their deadweight of sugar.

General Cargo.

This is one of the principal kinds of cargo where a special knowledge of stowage is necessary, and on p. 74 is shown a typical stowage plan of general cargo, showing the methods adopted in loading a miscellaneous cargo, in which precaution against damage and the accessibility of any portions of the cargo required to be discharged at intermediate ports are features. Heavy articles, such as boilers and machinery, may be stowed in the hold in the best position to ensure the stability of the steamer, as well as for the better securing of the heavy articles to prevent rolling or shifting, the remainder of the cargo space being used for lighter and smaller articles; but it should be mentioned that a vessel with too much weight in one part relative to that carried elsewhere is badly stowed.

Tankers.

The carrying of oil in bulk is a modern idea, and a reference to the tank steamer is given in a previous chapter. The method of

loading and discharging is by a system of pipes and pumps, and the oil is stowed in tanks divided into compartments, with specially constructed bulkheads to prevent leakage.

Cattle.

Live stock is usually carried in the 'tween decks of steamers, where pens or stalls are erected for them. Certain space is allotted to each animal, and cattlemen are carried to attend to the feeding and cleanliness of them. Special restrictions are laid down when cattle are carried on emigrant ships, in order to ensure the proper separation of the cattle pens from the steerage quarters, and to prevent any risk to the health of the passengers. In short coasting runs, cattle and sheep are sometimes carried on deck.

Brief mention may be made of the following cargoes.

Esparto.

Esparto is a very light cargo, stowing in about 125 cu. ft. It is liable to damage by contact with lead ore and other cargoes, so dunnaging is required.

Salt.

With salt cargoes, the holds must be clean, and in some cases whitewashed, before stowing the salt therein.

Jute.

This cargo is in bales of 400 lb. each, and stows in about 58 to 62 ft. to the ton.

Pitch.

This cargo is liable to melt in warm weather, and, to prevent any risk of the pitch adhering to the sides of the hold, the holds are whitewashed.

Case Oil.

Each case is about 1-88 ft., and there are approximately 27 cases to the ton.

Flax.

Flax stows in about 155 cu. ft. to the ton.