Res eft mira, latet gelidis quandoque fub undis, Ut prope cognatam pifcibus effe putes.' After reciting many inftances, and producing in his notes feveral authorities of fwallows having been found in a torpid ftate, he thus describes their afcent out of the waters: Pars quafi mentis inops, fopitaque litore ftabat, Tandem ubi multa dies recreaverat omnibus alas, In his Notes to this poem, he enumerates feveral observations on the periods of the fwallows' firft appearance in Spring, and of their difappearance in Autumn, in different countries. Among other curious circumstances which this Author introduces into his notes, is a long difquifition concerning the antiquity of goofe-quills for writing pens. He thinks that a manufcript of Virgil, in the Medicean library, fuppofed to have been written a little after the time of Honorius, was written with a quill. The arguments which he brings in fupport of his opinion are taken from the form and the unequal thickness of different parts of the letters. Much conjecture fupplies the place of proof. The fubject may perhaps be rerefumed by fome of our English antiquaries. The English pen, the German feder, or fchreib-feder, the Danish penn, the Swedish penna, the French plume, the Italian penna, evidently denote that the inftrument was formed of a quill. The Roman calamus was, doubtlefs, originally made of a reed:-but we fhall leave the enquiry for those who have more leifure than we can at prefent afford to this fubject. The naturalift will find many facts relative to the birds here defcribed by M. Heerkens, that have not been recorded by former writers. His obfervations feem to have been made with judgment. He has elucidated many particulars concerning the ceconomy of the birds which he defcribes; and he promiles a continuation of his agreeable work. ART. V. Effai fur les Etablissemens, &c. i. e. An Effay on Hospital Establishments, fhewing how they may, at the leaft Expence, be made fubfervient to the Relief of the Sick, and advantageous to Mankind. By M. Dulaurens, Senior Phyfician to the Army and Navy. 8vo. pp. 158. Paris. 1787. H OSPITALS, though originally intended to afford affift. ance to the fick, have alfo been eminently useful as forming medical fchools; and the practice of phyfic has, by their means, been greatly improved in many parts of Europe. As these inftitutions may be calculated to ferve two fuch useful purposes at the fame time, M. Dulaurens has judiciously thought that he could not employ himself better than in confidering the state of hofpitals in France, examining their defects, propofing amendments, and sketching out fuch plans of eftablishments as would, at the leaft expence, and in an effectual manner, render them fubfervient to the relief of fick individuals; and, by improving medical practice, be of great benefit to mankind in general. In his introductory chapter, the Author enlarges on the neceffity for hofpitals, and the great utility accruing from them, both to the state and to individuals. Here we meet with many common ideas, which must neceffarily occur to writers on fuch a fubject. M. Dulaurens defcribes what fituation is the moft eligible for the building; and having determined this material point, he proceeds to defcribe the building itself, the arrangement of the wards, the difpofitions of the beds, and other particulars relative to the house. Moft of his directions feem judicious; fome of them, however, may be controvertible; at least they are confired to the place. The hofpital at Rochefort is given as a model, yet we do not think it the most perfect. It is certainly preferable to either the Hotel-Dieu, or la Charité at Paris; but we are of opinion that a minute infpection, and attentive obfervation of fome of our English hofpitals, would have enabled M. Dulaurens to have made many useful additions to the Rochefort hofpital; which, nevertheless, appears, from the defcription here given, to be much fuperior to any other in France. With respect to the government of the hospital, the Author's remarks are fuch as evidently fhew that he has carefully attended to the fubject. His plan, however, can only be adopted, in its full extent, in particular places. The Sœurs de Charité are an advantage not common to all countries, and without their affiftance the expences of the hofpitals in France would be much greater than they are at prefent. M. Dulaurens then treats of the practice in hospitals, and fhews how hospitals may become the best schools of phyfic. He is juft in his cenfures on the ufual mode of conducting the practice in the French hofpitals; and gives many excellent directions for facilitating the labours of the attending phyficians. While the Author is engaged in this part of his work, he takes frequent opportunities of blaming the prefent medical fchools in France. Montpelier is extremely cenfured, and, according to the defcription which M. Dulaurens gives of the lectures in that univerfity, not without caufe; but we believe that he exaggerates the abuíes with which he charges Montpelier. He fays, the pupils are not conftrained to attend any of the lectures ;' lectures; which he thinks in the higheft degree blameable. The cafe is the fame in all univerfities. If the ftudents do not voluntarily attend the lectures, and apply themselves to private ftudies, they will forfeit the efteem of the profeffors, and, what is of more confequence, be refufed their degrees. It is left wholly, and very reasonably, to the ftudent, to become an adept in the fcience, or to be illiterate. Where the profeffors fee a young man eager in the purfuit of knowledge, they will afford him every affiftance in their power; where they fee him indolent, they justly think every conftrained application to study will but increase his diflike to it, and be not only unattended with fuccefs, but hurtful to science; which can never flourish to its full extent, except in the utmost freedom. While we thus defend the practice of the univerfities, we muft, nevertheless, beftow our praife on M. Dulaurens's judicious plan of medical education, as propofed in the work before us. His scheme, if duly followed, promifes to be productive of the most falutary effects; and though more peculiarly calculated for the meridian of France, may, with the requifite alterations, be adapted to other countries where medical education is improperly conducted. ART. VI. Effai fur l'Education Intellectuelle, &c. An Essay on Intellectual Education, with the Plan of a new Science. By Alexander Cæfar Chavannes, Profeffor in the Academy of Laufanne. 8vo. pp. 261. Laufanne. 1787. HIS work contains many obfervations which discover a confiderable reach of thought, and extent of knowledge. It forms but a fmall portion of a much larger work, which M. Chavannes poffeffes in manufcript, and which he thinks might be comprized in 15 volumes, 8vo, containing each from 3 to 400 pages. In the prefent sketch of his vaft undertaking, the Author proves, that our knowledge, our languages, and all human inftitutions, are originally derived from nature; and he explains the method ufually purfued in drawing from this common fource. The third chapter treats of the diftribution of human knowledge into different fciences, and of the fynthetic method of teaching them. M. Chavannes, in his fourth chapter, proves the infufficiency of the Synthefis for the inftruction of youth; and the following chapters are employed in pointing out the means of fupplying this defect. Thefe are, 1. The ftudy of antiquity, and of the primitive fources of human knowledge and human inftitutions. 2. The ftudy of different languages, and of the theory of language in general. 3. The introduction and Rudy ftudy of a new science, called Anthropology, or the general fcience of man. This fcience the Author divides into different branches. 1. Anthropology, properly fo called, confiders man as a species gloriously diftinguished above all others. 2. Ethnology respects man as divided into different communities or nations, occupied in providing for their wants, and in gratifying their taftes. 3. Noology and Boulology, which regard man as an intelligent and moral agent. 4. Gloffology confiders him as endowed with fpeech, and explains whatfoever regards language. 5. Mythology explains the errors and extravagances of his religious opinions. Such are the contents of the first part of this performance. In the fecond, M. Chavannes having explained the abfurdity of the prefent mode of education, proceeds to the eftablishing of principles for a new method, more eafy, expeditious, and useful. The mind,' he obferves, is, like the body, fo conftituted, as to increafe in force by degrees; and the fame means ought therefore to be employed for our intellectual, that are used for our phyfical improvement. To the latter, three circumftances are deemed neceffary. 1. Nourishment, falutary, and proportional to our conftitution and prefent degree of strength. 2. Moderate exercife, which, inftead of exhaufting, increases both our ftrength and activity. 3. The habit of performing, with ease and prom ptitude, different movements neceffary to the purposes of life, without diftortion, and without danger.' From the application of thefe principles the Author infers, that in the education of children, we ought to teach them facts rather than inferences, and employ them about fenfible and particular ideas, before we present them with thofe that are general and abftract. A fecond rule, not lefs important, is, that we ought never to teach them what they are not qualified to learn; nor make them pronounce words of which they are not in a situation to comprehend the meaning; nor advance their knowledge in language but in proportion to the progrefs of their knowledge in things. Hence it follows, that their first education ought to be entirely confined to their mother-tongue.' In illuftrating thefe rules, M. Chavannes obferves, that as foon as children begin to diftinguish objects, and to articulate founds, they ought to be fhewn the objects moft capable of interefting them, and to be left at full liberty with regard to the found by which they express these objects, as well as their fenfations and defires: as yet Nature is their beft guide, and muft direct their fancy in the choice of figns; but when they have advanced to fome degree of familiarity with language, and become capable of understanding and imitating the difcourfe of others, it is time to fubftitute, inftead of their infantine dialect, the words of their mother-tongue, and to beftow much pains in teaching teaching them to pronounce it properly. They will scarcely be able to exprefs themselves intelligibly, and to extend their vocabulary to all that belongs to common life, before the age of fix or feven, which is the proper time for beginning to read. When we reflect on the various combinations neceffary for the formation of speech, and confider the difficulties attending our progrefs in this art, it feems extraordinary that children fhould acquire it in fo fhort a time. But our furprize ceafes when we reflect, that in this first and most neceffary art, nature is their principal guide; and that whatever is done naturally is done eafily, how complicated foever it may be, efpecially when the neceffity of doing it is urgent and palpable. It is quite otherwife with the art of reading, of which children perceive not the neceffity, though they feel moft fenfibly its irksomeness and its difficulties. Yet thefe difficulties proceed from two caufes, which might eafily be removed: the firft, that children are taught to read, before they can fpeak with any propriety, and have familiarized themselves with the words neceffary in common life; the fecond, that in teaching them this art, we employ a multitude of operations, not more tedious than useless, and exercise them on a number of words which they do not comprehend, and which, perhaps, they may never have occafion to ufe. But let this method be reverfed; let them be firft taught to fpeak diftinctly, and let fuch books only be put into their hands as they can readily underftand, and it will be found that they will learn reading without averfion, without trouble, and with little wafte of time.' We cannot follow M. Chavannes through the long detail into which he enters concerning the different branches of education. He appears to be well acquainted with the authors on this fubject, both ancient and modern. In many particulars his opinions nearly coincide with thofe of his countryman Rouffeau, whofe fyftem, often fingular, fometimes extravagant, yet for the most part founded on fome principles of truth, M. Chavannes feems to have reduced to what is reasonable and practicable. ART. VII. Le Revoluzioni del Teatro Musicale Italiano. Revolutions of the Italian Opera, or mufical Drama, from its Invention to the prefent Times. By STEFANO ARTEAGA. 2d Edit. 3 Vols. 8vo. Rome. 1785. HE firft edition of this work was published at Bologna, THE 1783, in one volume; but it is now fo changed and aug * The Swifs do not acknowledge the Genevefe for their countrymen; but they appear in that light to ftrangers, who have not leifure to attend to minute provincial diftinctions. APP. Rev. Vol. LXXVII, Pp mented, |