on the death-rate, the dispute being only as to which scale, but they do not allow for it in either. E. J. SYSON. Medical Officer of Health.

Sanitary Inventions.

KEATS'S LAMPS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHUROUS ACIDS.

A CONVENIENT means of obtaining sulphurous acid is afforded by this simple contrivance, which consists of a small portable lamp in which bisulphide of carbon is used with perfect safety, if a reasonable amount of care is observed. The apparatus consists of a small lamp similar to that used for microscopic purposes, but made of block tin. A screw cap prevents the escape of the vapour when not in use. It is enclosed in a japanned tin case or lantern about four inches in diameter and twelve in height. Perforations round the base admit air, and holes at the top permit the diffusion of the vapour. A long handle of wire forms a safe and convenient means of moving the apparatus to any position in which it may be required. No danger need be apprehended if the liquid is poured in at a safe distance from a light, but it is advisable to fill the lamp in the open air to secure absolute immunity from danger. The worst that can happen is the ignition of the small portion required to charge the lamp. It is scarcely worth while to mention the possibility of such an occurrence except to reassure those who have an exaggerated idea of danger on account of the inflammability of the substance used. The value of sulphurous ether is so well known that the apparatus is likely to be generally adopted on account of its simplicity, economy, and effectiveness. Messrs. How and Co., St. Bride Street, Fleet Street, London, E. C. are the manufacturers.

THE PATENT WOVEN WIRE MATTRESS.

THIS excellent invention consists of a strong and thoroughly elastic fabric of wire interlocked and woven by a patent process. It is largely in use in hospitals and private dwellings. It has many special advantages; among them are its perfect elasticity, noiselessness, cleanliness, coolness, durability, cheapness and portability. It takes the place of sacking and ordinary matresses, affording a clean easy spring bed which gives no harbour to vermin. It is at once luxurious and convenient, and deserves the widest popularity. These mattresses are manufactured by Messrs. Gresham and Craven, Craven Iron Works, Manchester.

Notice of Meetings, etc.

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

THE Eighth Ordinary Meeting of the present Session, was held on Tuesday, the 19th inst., at the society's rooms, Somerset House Terrace (King's College Entrance), Strand, W.C., London, when a paper was read on "The Population of Russia and Turkey,' by E. G. Ravenstein, Esq., F.R.G.S., after which diagrams illustrating the accounts of the Banks of England, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, etc., were submitted and remarks made thereon by Ernest Seyd, Esq., F.S.S.

BLYTH, Alexander Wynter, M. R.C.S. Eng., L.S. A. Lond., has been reappointed Medical Officer of Health for the Bideford, Dulverton, Okehampton, Southmolton, and Torrington Rural Sanitary Districts, at 550l. per ann. for three years.

BURROWS, George H., Esq., has been appointed Treasurer to the Fylde Guardians and Rural Sanitary, Authority, Lancashire, vice Fisher, deceased.

CUPIT, Mr. Alfred, has been appointed Inspector of Nuisances for the Brampton and Walton Urban Sanitary District, Derbyshire, vice Birch, resigned.

DAVIES, Robert H., F.C.S., has been appointed Public Analyst for the Fulham District, vice Burge, resigned: 100l. for one year. GRANT, Mr. Alexander, has been appointed a Collector to the Corporation and Urban Sanitary Authority of Swansea, vice Davies.

JORDAN, Robert, Esq., has been elected Chairman of the Ebbw Vale Local Board and Urban Sanitary Authority, Monmouthshire, vice Rowbotham, resigned.

LEACH, J. Comyns, B.Sc. Lond., S. Sc. C. Camb., F.C.S., has been reappointed Medical Officer of Health for the Sturminster Rural Sanitary Authority for three years.

MARSHALL, Mr. P. P., C. E., has been appointed Engineer and Road Surveyor to the Corporation and Urban Sanitary Authority of Norwich, vice Thwaites, resigned: 450. per annum, office clerk, &c., &c.

MOLONY, Patrick John, M.D., C.M., Univ. Dub., has been appointed Medical Officer of Health for the Chesterton Rural Sanitary District, vice Ramsay, resigned.

PACKWOOD, Mr. William, has been appointed Town Clerk for the Town and Urban Sanitary District of Hoye, Sussex, vice Woolley, resigned.

PARROTT, Mr. F. B., has been appointed Clerk to the Aylesbury Guardians and Rural Sanitary Authority, Buckinghamshire, vic e Mr. J. Parrott, resigned.

PRIESTLY, Clement Edward, L.R.C.P. Edin., has been appointed Medical Officer of Health for the Halstead Urban Sanitary District, Essex, vice Jessopp, whose appointment has expired. RAWLINS, Joseph, Esq., has been appointed Treasurer to the Melksham Guardians and Rural Sanitary Authority, vice Palmer, resigned.

HONITON, BOROUGH OF, AND URBAN SANITARY AUTHORITY. Medical Officer of Health: 20/. per annum. Application, 23rd inst.. to G. T. Tweed, Town Clerk.

LUDLOW GUARDIANS AND RURAL SANITARY AUTHORITY, Salop. Clerk to the Guardians, Clerk to the Assessment Committee, Clerk to the Rural Sanitary Authority, Clerk to the School Attendance Committee, and Superintendent Registrar: 1557 per ann., such salary as Clerk to the School Attendance Committee as may be fixed upon, and fees. Application, 23rd instant, to Ernest J. Davies, Clerk to the Guardians, etc. NEWBOLD AND DUNSTON LOCAL BOARD AND URBAN SANITARY AUTHORITY, Derbyshire. Collector. Application, 30th instant, to J. G. Young, Clerk.

NUNEATON URBAN SANITARY DISTRICT, Warwickshire. Medical Officer of Health.

PENRITH LOCAL BOARD AND URBAN SANITARY AUTHOrity, Cumberland. Surveyor and Inspector of Nuisances: 100l. per annum. Application, 3rd instant, to Christopher Fairer, Clerk to the Authority. RINGWOOD RURAL SANITARY DISTRICT. Medical Officer of Health. Application, 23rd instant, to G. P. Brown, Clerk to the Authority.

ST. COLUMB-MAJOR RURAL SANITARY DISTRICT, Cornwall. Medical Officer of Health. Application, 27th instant, to George B. Collins, Clerk to the Authority.

Medical Officer of Application, 29th instant, to

WITHAM URBAN SANITARY DISTRICT, Essex.
Health: 10. 1os. for one year.
John Cook, Clerk to the Authority.

WITHINGTON LOCAL BOARD AND URBAN SANITARY AUTHORITY, Lancashire. Assistant Surveyor: 150l. per annum. Application, 23rd instant, to George Evans, Clerk, 66 Deansgate, Manchester.

APPOINTMENTS OF HEALTH OFFICERS, INSPECTORS OF NUISANCES, ETC.

ACTON, Mr. Samuel Poole, has been elected a Member of the Bromley Local Board and Urban Sanitary Authority, Kent, vice Benest, resigned.

NOTICE.

THE SANITARY RECORD will in future be published every Friday morning, and may be ordered direct from the Publishers. Annual Subscription, 175. 4d.; free by post, 195. 6ď Reading Covers to hold 12 numbers of THE SANITARY RECORD have been prepared, and may be had direct from the Publishers or through any Bookseller, price 35.

EPIDEMICS.*

BY ARTHUR RANSOME, M.D., M.A.

(Continued from page 392.)

THEN comes the question of disinfection. How is this to be accomplished? It is evident that as we have a living enemy to deal with, it must be killed. We can give no quarter in this battle, it must be a war of extermination. What means do we possess by which this can be carried out? In most of the inquiries that have been made upon this subject up to a very recent period, it was taken for granted that from the analogy existing between fermentation and zymosis, any means that would prevent the former would equally well arrest the latter action. Now there are a great variety of ways known by which fermentation and putrefaction may be prevented; such as, First, Heating to a high temperature, and excluding the air, as in the process first invented by Needham, but more fully carried out by Appert, and now used for preserving meat from Australia and other places. Second, Perfect dryness. Third, Freezing (the plan now used to convey American meat to the English market), and Fourth, The use of antiputrescent, or antiseptic substances. The last-named method depends for its success upon several very distinct actions, and thus the means used may be grouped

under several different heads.

1. The destruction by oxygen of the septic or fermentative germs. This may be accomplished by simple exposure to the air, and it is especially effective when this contains either freshly formed oxygen or ozone, which is a sort of doubledistilled oxygen. The action again is intensified by the presence of substances like chlorine, and iodine, and bromine. We should arrange also under this head the effective use of oxydising agents, such as the permanganates, the base of Condy's fluid, and the powerful molecular action of animal charcoal. 2. The use of substances that have a powerful affinity for water, and abstract it determined from the fermentescible material. It is in this way that quicklime and sugar usually act. Most good housekeepers know the value of sugar in this regard.

3. Mixing with the organic substance materials that either form with it a compound less liable to change, or that decompose the ferment to such an extent as to deprive it of its power. Such things, for instance, as alum, tannin, and creosote, the mercurial acids, common salt, and certain metallic compounds. 4. The employment of means to take from the surrounding air, and also from the ferment, the oxygen required for some kinds of fermentation. It is probable that sulphurous acid-the fumes of burning sulphur-act in this way, and produce one of the strongest antiseptics known.

5. And lastly, the use of special poisons that destroy animal or vegetable life in the low forms that are met with in fermentation; such are carbolic acid, and other tar products, terebene, arsenious acid, perhaps salicylic and boracic acids, mercuric chloride,

and other metallic salts.

Under these several heads we might range a goodly list of weapons with which to meet the enemy against whom we are now holding a council

Delivered before the National Health Society, Society of Arts Rooms, John Street, Adelphi, London, May 23, 1877.

their efficacy? and in what way must they be used so as to be effectual?

It will be allowed, I think, that these are important questions, and yet it must be confessed that only with reference to very few of the means mentioned has any "trustworthy evidence been brought forward. Many of them have been employed with a kind of blind faith that the mere presence of a socalled disinfectant in a sick room would suffice to cleanse its atmosphere. We are probably many of us familiar with the appearance of bowls filled with a blood-red fluid placed about a room, or with the dishes of chloride of lime or pastiles of sulphur sending forth faint odours of gas into the chamber; and yet used in these fashions these disinfectants would probably give as little security against infection as the famous saffron-bag whose virtues are so extolled by Mr. Caxton.

recent report to the Privy Council that 'antiseptic It has been clearly shown by Dr. Baxter in a is not synonymous with disinfectant power.'

Most of the former class of substances will probably act as disinfectants if they can be brought into sufficiently close contact with the infecting particles, but it is often extremely difficult to do this, and the conditions that must be observed in order to accomfew out of the numerous groups of antiseptics and plish it have only been partially ascertained for very

anti-fermentatives.

con

It seems that the disease germs are in some way contained, and thus are less easily annihilated than protected by the animal matter in which they are the ferment-germs. It is important also that we should not prevent them from being dealt with by the natural disinfecting processes that are Nature's means are tinually going on around us. simple enough, but if they are not over-weighted they are also effectual. We might almost include them under the four elements-Earth, Air, Water, and Fire. These supposed entities, out of which all things were said to be made, might more truly be regarded as Nature's own means of destroying noxious matter. Thus Earth will receive and render the Air, if

innocuous excrementitious matter;

straight paths be made for it, will sweep away and where the great purifier, and Fire will destroy everyoxydise floating organic particles. Water is everything left untouched by the other elements. Some of these means are probably typified in the labours of Hercules, as when he cleansed the Augean stable of its filth by turning through it the waters of the rivers Peneus and Alpheus, or, as Browning tells us,

when

He slew the pest of the Marish yesterday,

To-morrow he would bit the flame-breathed steed
That fed on Man's flesh.

Plutarch informs us that Empedocles caused the disappearance of an epidemic fever in Selinis by scouring the ditches of their filth by a fresh current of water drawn from two rivers in the neighbouring of the Nile was said in the same manner to stay country—(Περὶ Πολυπραγμοσύνης)—and the rising the raging of the plague. It was the practice of the ancient Egyptians to burn aromatic woods and spices as disinfectants, and in the Homeric poem of the Odyssey' fire and sulphur are mentioned as the 'cure of noxious fumes.'

When disinfectants are used they must be employed thoroughly; and fortunately by the aid of

recent researches we are able to say what are the conditions that must be observed with regard to the following means :-heat, burning sulphur, chlorine, carbolic acid, and permanganate of potash.

Heat was first shown to be effective as a disinfectant by Dr. W. Henry, of Manchester; but it has been shown by Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham, that we must make quite sure that a heat of 230 has been applied to every particle of matter to be disinfected. It is so difficult to do this without scorching clothing and other articles, that it would probably be well that the work should, in most cases, only be performed in proper disinfecting ovens. Burning sulphur and chlorine, when used for aërial disinfection, must make the air of the rooms absolutely irrespirable, and saturated with the gas for at least an hour. Carbolic acid must be present in fluids for disinfection in the proportion of at least 2 per cent. of the pure acid; and when chlorine or permanganate of potash are used, we are told that there is no security for the effectual fulfilment of disinfection short of the presence of free chlorine, or undecomposed permanganate of potash in the liquid

after all chemical action has had time to subside. On account of the difficulty of carrying out all these directions it would probably be well, in almost every case, that disinfection should be performed by the officials of a corporation or of a local sanitary authority. In any case, bear in mind the necessity of keeping the infectious material as much as possible within bounds, and to this end I would emphatically bear witness to the great advantage of Dr. W. Budd's plan of anointing the body of the sick person with oil or some kind of grease, to prevent the scales of the scarf-skin from flying about. I have found it a most effectual means of limiting the infection in many cases of scarlet fever. The excretions also, especially in typhoid fever, need to be at once thoroughly treated with chlorides, carbolic acid, or some other agent that has been proved to be a disinfectant.

4thly. It is of the utmost importance that the nests or breeding-places of these organisms should be rooted out and destroyed. There are parts of most large towns where epidemic disease of one kind or another is almost always present-places fitly called 'fever-nests'—of which it may be prophesied with great confidence, that if typhus or other fevers are epidemic, they will be discovered there. And it is further a significant fact that when cholera invaded any of these towns it was observed to appear first, and to linger longest, in those spots where fever had formerly been most rife. These places then should all be swept away, or at least so altered that the winds of heaven can have free course through them. And there should now be little difficulty in accomplishing this. From their arrangements and mode of construction there would be little hesitation about pronouncing them 'unfit for human habitation,' and the recently passed Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act-the Rookeries Act as it was called-could, in most cases, be easily put in force; the wretched dens could be cleared away, and healthy non-infected houses could be erected in their stead. Cleanliness and purity in all things, in dwellings, in clothing, in person, in food and drink, in the air we breathe-these are, indeed, the chief disinfecting agencies upon which we should rely to keep epidemics from effecting a lodgment, and to prevent them from spreading amongst us.

We have now mentioned some of the chief things

that have to be attended to if we wish to carry on successfully our war with infectious diseases. But there are two or three further points in their natural history that ought to be borne in mind if we wish to avoid error in our dealings with them. The first of these is the period of the disorder at which infection may, and at which it generally does, take place. This will teach us how long to separate our invalids from their friends, and for such diseases as small-pox and scarlet fever it is unfortunately a very long timeuntil peeling and scabbing have fully taken place, and the body has been well cleansed from their debris. But it will also tell us that in some of these diseases it is almost impossible to effect any effectual quarantine at all. In the case of whooping-cough and measles, infection usually happens at such time as to render it quite hopeless that we can ever stay the course of an epidemic. Infection in both of these complaints often takes place before the characteristic signs of the disease appear, and therefore too soon for precautions to be taken. In measles before the appearance of the rash, and in whooping-cough before the peculiar sound is heard in the cough. It is not pleasant to have to confess our helplessness with regard to two diseases that annually carry off between them about 20,000 lives; but it is better at once to face the consequences of the peculiarity that I have named, and not to harass the community by attempting to put in force in reference to these diseases the irksome provisions against infection that may be successfully used against smallpox, typhus or scarlet fever. Fortunately it by no means follows that because we cannot prevent these diseases we must put up with the loss of life that they occasion. Though their spread cannot be stopped, the mortality from them can for the most part be prevented by such treatment as even the poorest can obtain; simple protection from cold, confinement to bed, and suitable food will generally carry children safely through these illnesses; and by these means alone probably at least three-fourths of the deaths from them might be prevented. Another caution should be drawn from the natural course that is usually taken by epidemics :-they nearly all of them follow a peculiar curve; they rise for a certain number of weeks or months, and then they begin to decline.

A knowledge of this fact should therefore hinder enthusiastic sanitarians from assuming that a decline of the disease is necessarily the result of the measures that they have taken against it. The remarkable manner in which epidemics recur at regular intervals ought also to assist us in our conflict with them. Thus, if we may judge from the results of disease registration in Manchester and Salford, whooping cough has a two years' epoch recurring every second year since 1861 with the utmost regularity.

The other diagrams before you represent graphically the cycles that have been observed for upwards of a century by small-pox, scarlet fever, and measles. Those relating to Sweden belong to a time before the regular registration of deaths in England, and I am able to show them to you by the kind help of Dr. Farr, and his friend Dr. Berg, who holds a high position in the Statistical Department of Stockholm. I think you will agree with me in thinking that they display in a very remarkable manner the tendency of these diseases to recur in certain definite periods; and they show, moreover, the difference between the course followed in.