continue so united for a succession of ages, yet admitting or supposing this, the effect would be as now drawn out; and thus, for instance, the wonderful prosperity promised to the Jewish nation in the Scripture, would be in a great measure the consequence of what is predicted to them, that the people should be all righteous and inherit the land forever. (Is. i. 21). The prediction of this kind, continues Bishop Butler, cannot come to pass in the present known course of nature.'

Phrenology affords a clearer insight into human nature, and in my work on Education I consider all that I deem requisite to improve the species and to establish God's moral government, which, as Bishop Butler says, is not fictitious but natural. Here I confine myself to a few general indications, which are commonly neglected by those who exercise some influence on society.

The causes of human misery being ascertained, it is evident, that whatever impedes human happiness must be removed or at least diminished. The study of human nature forms the foundation. This being done, moralists will see, that human happiness requires more than to preach moral principles, to give alms, to found charityinstitutions, to follow religious ceremonies, and to cultivate the arts and sciences; they will apprehend that the evil is to be attacked by the root, that is, that natural means must be employed to improve dispositions. The body, the temple of the soul, will be more attended to; the laws of vegetative functions and of hereditary descent will be appreciated and put into practice. The maxim, make the tree good and it will bring forth good fruit, will be constantly present to philanthropists and legislators. In short, ignorance and immorality will be attacked by all possible means. All that can augment or excite the animal nature is to be avoided, and every condition that may develope the faculties proper to man is to be encouraged. Governments cannot be serious in their desire for morality so long as they encourage lotteries, countenance games of hazard, and keep mercenary soldiers in pay. The importance of the faculties proper to man, or his moral constitution in regard to general happiness, is a point which cannot be too strongly nor

too often recommended. The superior powers are satisfied by their own functions. The just, the benevolent, the religious and the disinterested need not foreign aid to satisfy their noble feelings. Inferior inclinations, on the contrary, almost always depend on the caprices of others for their gratification. The egotist, for instance, is opposed in his undertakings by those who, like him, think chiefly of themselves. The ambitious man is unhappy if he be not approved of, or honored to the extent he thinks he has deserved. He who, prompted by charity, does good, finds his reward in the deed itself; but he who does good to gain approbation, or gratitude, is liable to be deceived, and, in the very act, often prepares himself a source of sorrow. In proportion, therefore, as the animal nature shall lose in energy, and the peculiarly human faculties gain in strength, the sum of human happiness will increase.

As man, in the actual state of things, cannot be left to himself, as his actions must be directed by social institutions, it is much to be wished that these were conformable to the invariable laws of natural morality. I fear, that notwithstanding the sincerest love of truth and the purest intentions, some means which are useless, and even noxious, will be resorted to, on account of human nature not being sufficiently known.

Whatever may be done, however, the progress will necessarily be slow. Governments must as a first step begin by nourishing pure intentions, by giving up all selfish and exclusionary views and in all their particular regulations, by favoring general happiness.

Let those whose duty it is to direct society, reflect on the two natures of man; on the superiority of the one over the other; and, farther, on the faculties which compose each; let them be convinced that every fundamental power exists of itself; that charity is not the result of faith, nor faith of charity; and that all the faculties, though existing independently, may be combined, and mutually aid and excite each other.

Though the animal faculties being the principal cause of human misery, must, by all means, be diminished, yet it is to be remembered that no fundamental power can be annihilated, but the actions

of all must be directed. I have explained my ideas sufficiently, not to be suspected of speaking in favor of any arbitrary regulation; yet I shall always insist on the necessity of restraining the animal faculties by those proper to man. In my opinion, consequently, personal, as well as moral liberty is limited. I have already treated of moral liberty; I shall here add my views of that which is personal in connexion with general happiness.

CHAPTER V.

Of Personal Liberty.

MAN, it is said, is born free. This proposition has been used by some authors in a very extensive signification. Every one, they have said, may do whatever he pleases. This interpretation, however, is incompatible with the constitution of the human mind. Let us observe the order of nature, that we may understand the will of the Creator.

Personal liberty we see is first limited by the laws of nature. Conception, birth, growth, health, and every function of vitality, as subjected to positive circumstances, force us at once to look on man as very dependent. Farther, man depends entirely upon others during his long infancy. And, again, as a social being, he has duties to fulfil, and rights to reclaim ; now, the idea of mutual obligation is incompatible with unbounded, or that liberty which admits every kind of individual gratification. We must live and permit others to live; we must do our duty as child, as parent, and as citizen. The elucidation of these points belongs to the study of the law of nature, or of the rights and duties of man.

The personal liberty of man is also limited by the reality of his two natures, and by the superiority of the one. The animal faculties must be subordinate to the powers proper to man, and the true

Christian is still the slave of justice. This principle, the touchstone of the excellence or imperfection of civil laws, bounds at the same time those who govern and those who are governed, and it proves clearly that by the will of the Creator the personal liberty of man is limited. It has, indeed, been said repeatedly, that without morality no society can exist, and that liberty is not licentiousThis is strictly true. The laws, however, must be just in favoring the common welfare.

ness.

Finally, the faculties proper to man may deviate from their natural destination, and this they do each time they act separately. Benevolence without justice and reflection, may do much evil, and justice without benevolence may be too severe. Thus even the most noble parts of man's nature are limited, and kept in check by each other; all must act in harmony to elicit good.

The truth, that personal liberty is very much circumscribed, is never neglected without great disorders following. We must, however, add that no one has any natural right, arbitrarily and from selfish motives, to limit the personal liberty of others. Volney says, 'Wheresoever I cast my eye, whatever the period of which I think, I find the same principles of increase, or of destruction, of elevation and of decline. If ever a nation be powerful, or an empire prosper, its conventional laws are conformable to those of nature. If, on the contrary, a state sink in ruin or be dissolved, the laws are imperfect or vicious, or the government is corrupt and violates the laws.' Civil restrictions ought to be the mere application of those of nature; they ought to be the same for every member of the community, and the aim of their imposition—the general happiness. Nature applies its laws constantly and indiscriminately; nature is incorruptible, and makes no exceptions. Human regulations alone are liable to this reproach. Governors and the governed are subjected to the same laws of propagation, of nutrition, of health, disease and death. Who can deny that nature is equally constant in the application of its moral laws? Happy period when every one will be obliged to conform his conduct to them!

In order to elucidate my ideas on the necessity of submitting the individual desires to the natural laws of morality, I shall quote physical love, attachment, self-love or covetiveness, and the love of approbation, and whatever I say of them will apply to the other feelings common to man and animals. The subordination of the animal nature to proper humanity, seems to me as necessary to the happiness of mankind, as is attention to matters used as food to individual preservation. A poisonous substance can never become wholesome aliment, and any action inimical to the happiness of mankind will never lose its essential and immoral character.

Is it permitted to limit physical love in society? The faculties proper to man decide the question. For as these are destined to general happiness, physical love being an animal feeling, must bẹ restrained whenever it acts in opposition to their dictates. Now, there can be no doubt that the number of inhabitants in a country influences their state of being. Too crowded a population unavoidably causes misery and degeneration of the species. Both natural and Christian morality forbid us to exterminate or to forsake such unhappy beings as exist; society is even bound to take care of them, but their farther multiplication, as well as every other cause that militates against general happiness, may be lawfully opposed.

The most enlightened economists, admit that population increases in the ratio of the means of subsistence, in the same way as all living beings multiply or perish, according as they are well or ill supplied with nourishment. Vegetation prospers if the soil be well manured. Birds that live on insects are more or less numerous in districts, according to the quantity of food they afford. Herbivorous animals abound in lands which are rich in forage, and countries are peopled in proportion as they furnish the means of living. It is true that a greater number of sober and temperate than of gluttonous and luxurious persons may live in a given district, but nourishment is still the principal condition influencing population. The equilibrium between aliment and consumers is always preserved;