Ants: Their Structure, Development and Behavior - William Morton Wheeler - Google Books

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POLYMORPHISM (CONCLUDED).

VII. The Ethological and Phylogenetic Method of Explaining the

Development of the Worker

1. The Probable Solitary Wasp-like Origin of the Social
Habits of Ants. 2. The Origin of Division of Labor and
Its Influence on Somatic Characters. 3. Application of the
Biogenetic Law to the Sociogeny of Ants. 4. Correspond-
ence in Rate of Development between Polymorphism and
Social Organization. 5. The Nine Phylogenetic Stages in the
Development of Stature. 6. Adaptive Character of These
Stature Differences. 7. Objections to Weismann's Theory
of Non-inheritance of Acquired Characters as Applied to
Ants. 8. The Four Stages Recognized by Plate in the
Phylogeny of Ants. 9. Plate's View Compared with Spencer's
and with That of the Author.

VIII. The Psychological View of the Problem

1. The Relation of Instinct to Polymorphism in Ants... 118

(a) The Worker Type Due to a Worker-producing Instinct.

(b) Predominant Character of the Philoprogenitive In-

stincts in Ants.

2. Differentiation in Function the Precursor of Differ-

entiation in Structure

(a) The Instincts of the Queen (i) in Gynæcotelic Insects;

(ii) in Ergatotelic Insects. (b) Evidences that Instinct-

changes Precede Morphological Changes.

THE HISTORY OF MYRMECOLOGY AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANTS.

I The Present Status of the Study of Ants

II. The Three View-points in Ant-study

III. The Development of Ant Taxonomy

1. Linné, Fabricius, and Latreille. 2. Nylander, Mayr, and

Frederick Smith. 3. Emery, Forel, and Other Later Writers.

IV. The History of Ant Ethology

1. The Earlier Writers. 2. Pierre Huber. 3. The Later

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II. Two Methods of Studying Ant-distribution

III. The Faunistic Distribution of Ants

1. Geological Parallelism in the Origin and Distribution of

Ants and Mammals. 2. History and Distribution of the

Principal Groups. 3. The North American Ant-fauna. (a)

The Preglacial Fauna. (b) The Four Postglacial Waves

of Northward Migration. (c) The Four Centers of Redis-

tribution. (d) Adventitious Tropical and Subtropical Forms.

(e) Ants Imported by Commerce.

IV. The Ethological Distribution of Ants

(f) Conclusions.

I. Paleontological History of the Hymenoptera

II. The Tertiary Ants

I. Relations of the Extinct to the Living Genera. 2. Localities

Yielding Tertiary Ant Fossils. 3. Comparison of Lacustrine

with Amber Ants. 4. Inadequacy of Past Researches on

the Oeningen and Radoboj Ants. 5. Numerical Proportion

of Known Fossil Ant Specimens to Those of Other Hymen-

optera. 6. Relative Proportion of Fossil Ants in the Various

Subfamilies and Conclusions Based Thereon. 7. The Known

Genera of Amber Ants. 8. Causes of the Intermingling

of Arctic and Tropical Forms. 9. Remarks on Interesting

Genera and Species. 10. The Tertiary Ants of North

III. The Quaternary, or Pleistocene Ants...

IV. Similarity of Baltic Amber Ants to Living Baltic Species.. 174

V. Absence of Polymorphism among the Workers of Tertiary

THE HABITS OF ANTS IN GENERAL.

I. The Three-fold Activities of Ants in General

II. Nutritive Activities of Ants.-Six General Sources of Ants'

III. Protective Habits of Ants

1. Care of the Young. 2. Care of One Another.

the Nest. 4. Methods of Defence and Attack.

of Preventing Mixture of Alien Colonies.

IV. Reproduction among Ants

1. Terrestrial Mating. 2. The Nuptial Flight. 3. The Found-

ing of the New Colony. 4. Social Parasitism. 5. The Num-

ber of Individuals in a Colony.

I. General Architectural Characteristics

II. Methods of Construction

III. Change of Abode

IV. Classification of Ant-nests

V. Nests in the Soil

1. Small Crater Nests. 2. Large Crater Nests. 3. Mound, or

Dome and Masonry Nests. 4. Nests under Stones, Boards,

ANT-NESTS (CONCLUDED).

VI. Nests in the Cavities of Plants

1. In Preformed Cavities. 2. In Woody Plant-tissues (a)

Carpenter Ants; (b) Gall Ants.

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1. Paths, Clearings, and Covered Runways. 2. Succursal

Nests. 3. Tents, or Pavilions.

THE PONERINE ANTS.

I. Necessity of the Historical Method of Study

II. General Significance of the Ponerinæ as a Group

III. The Genus Myrmecia as the Prototype of all Ants

VII. Observations on the Methods of Feeding the Larvæ

XI. Usurpation of Queen Function by Gynæcoid Workers

XII. Phylogeny of the Group

THE DRIVER AND LEGIONARY ANTS.

I. The Dorylinæ as a Group

II. Description of the Castes

III. Difficulties of Nomenclature

IV. The Genus Dorylus

V. The Genus Ænictus

VI. The Genera Eciton and Cheliomyrmex

VII. The Problems of the Doryline

1. Domestic Economy. 2. Dichthadiigynes.

THE HARVESTING ANTS.

I. The Origin and Development of the Harvesting Habit ...

II. Early Observations

III. Observations of European Harvesters by Moggridge,

Forel, André, Emery and Others

IV. The North African Harvester Oxyopomyrmex santschii.. 273

V. The Asiatic Harvesters Pheidole, Holcomyrmer and Phei-

VI. The Australian Harvesters Pheidole longiceps and Mera-

VII. The American Harvesters (Solenopsidii and Myrmicii)... 278

1. Solenopsis geminata, the "fire ant." 2. The Genus Pheidole.

3. The Genus Messor. 4. Ischnomyrmex cockerelli and

albisetosus. 4. The Genus Pogonomyrmex. (a) Char-

acterization, Range, and Classification. (b) Pogonomyrmex

imbericulus, etc. (c) The Florida Harvester, etc. (d)

The Texan Harvester and the Ant-rice" Theory. (e)

The Marriage Flight of the Texan Harvester. (f) The

Founding of Colonies by P. molefaciens. (g) The Occident

Harvester. (h) The Stinging Habits of Pogonomyrmex.

THE RELATIONS OF ANTS TO VASCULAR PLANTS.

I. The Hypothesis of Mutualism between Ants and Plants.

II. Plant Adaptations Apparently Indicating Symbiosis

1. Dwelling-places for Ants. (a) Cavities in Stems. (b)

Tubers, Bulbs, Pseudobulbs, Rootstocks, etc. (c) Ascidiæ

or Bursæ of Leaves and Petioles. (d) Spaces between or

under Leaves. (e) Thorns. (f) Seed-pods. (g) Galls.

2. Food-supplies for Ants. (a) Floral Nectaries. (b)

Extrafloral Nectaries. (c) Food-bodies. (d) Bead-glands

("Perldrüsen "). (e) Pith and Other Vegetable Tissues.

III. The Ants Dwelling on Plants

1. The Arboreal Genera. 2. The Habits and Structural

Adaptations of Azteca and Pseudomyrma, and their Rela-

tions to the Problem. 3. The Relations of Azteca muelleri

to Cecropia adenopus. 4. The Relations of Ants to Myrme-

codia, Hydnophytum and Myrmephytum. 5. The Relations

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