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The following is the history of the university more recently established in this city.

bridge, jointly with the school at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. | given to the university of Durham to grant degrees pari There are about 60 boys educated at the school, exclusive passu with them. of 18 on the foundation. There is a blue-coat and Sunday school, as well as infant schools and a charity-school in Gravel-lane. It is said that upwards of 1000 children are gratuitously educated in Durham and its suburbs. An infirmary, erected in 1791, is supported by voluntary contributions. On Palace Green are almshouses for four poor men and four poor women, who receive an annuity of 70l. In addition to the charitable institutions mentioned, there is a numerous list of benefactors to the poor of the city and its vicinity.

About three-quarters of a mile from Durham is the site of the Maiden Castle, a fortress ascribed to the Romans, as also some remains of the Iknield-street. Saline, chalybeate, and sulphureous springs are found in the neighbourhood.

DURHAM CATHEDRAL. A plan of the cathedral of Durham has been already given under CHURCH, with its general dimensions of length, breadth, and height. It was begun during the reign of William Rufus by Bishop William de Carilepho, and continued, if not quite finished, by his successor Ranulf Flambard, who had shown his talent for architecture, before his promotion to the see of Durham, by the erection of the collegiate church of Christ Church, in Hampshire.

The cathedral erected by these prelates was of the form universally adopted by the Norman architects: a long cross, with two turrets at the west end, and between them a large and richly-ornamented arched door of entrance. The eastern end probably terminated in a semicircular form, as the lines of union of the original work with the Chapel of the Nine Altars strongly indicate. The side aisles, both of the nave and choir, were vaulted with semicircular arches groined; but the nave and choir were open to the timber roof. Such was the form of the edifice as left by the first architects.

The first addition to the original church was the Galilee, or Western Chapel, built by Bishop Hugh de Pudsey, between 1153 and 1195. The nave was vaulted by Prior Thomas Melsonby, who acceded in 1233, to whom also some ascribe the projecting of the great or central tower and the beginning of the building of the Chapel of the Nine Altars. These great works were finished by Richard Hotoun, who became prior in 1290, and who is recorded to have vaulted the choir. The great west window was inserted by prior John Fossour about the year 1350. The altar-screen, erected chiefly at the expense of John Lord Neville, was finished in 1380 by prior Robert Berrington.

The dean and chapter of Durham, by an act of chapter bearing date the 28th of April, 1831, have established an academical institution in that city in connexion with their cathedral church, which by an act of parliament passed in the 2nd and 3rd years of William IV., entituled ' An Act to enable the Dean and Chapter of Durham to appropriate part of the property of their Church to the establishment of a University in connexion there with, for the advancement of learning,' became confirmed and endowed. By this act the government of the university was vested in the said dean and chapter for the time being, subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Durham for the time being as visitor, and the establishment was to consist of a warden or principal, of certain professors and readers, tutors, students, and other officers and persons. By this act also certain lands, tenements, and hereditaments comprised in the leases mentioned in the schedule to the said act annexed, and the inheritance thereof in fee simple (subject to the said leases for years, and saving to the dean and chapter of Durham and their successors all mines, &c. opened and to be opened within and under the said lands), are vested in the dean and chapter of Durham and their successors for ever, in trust to apply the rents, fines, and other profits and proceeds of the said lands, for the maintenance and establishment of a university in connexion with the cathedral church of Durham. The leases mentioned in the schedule (the great majority of which are of dwelling-houses) amount to 394. The act empowers the dean and chapter, with the consent of the bishop of Durham, to sell all the lands and tenements mentioned in the said schedule, and also all other lands and tenements which shall at any time be vested in the dean and chapter of Durham in trust for the university. The purchasers of any of the lands and tenements so sold are to pay the purchase money into the bank of England, in the name and with the privity of the accountant-general of the court of chancery, to be placed to his account there, ex parte the Dean and Chapter of Durham, the University of Durham account.' The fifth section of the act provides for the application of the said purchase-monies. The fifteenth section enacts

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The successive additions to this cathedral have rendered the church, as it now stands. not only a perfect specimen of the Norman architecture, but a most instructive series of examples, illustrating the gradual changes of the English style to the beginning of the fifteenth century. (Hutchinson's and Surtees's Histories of Durham, with the Account of the Cathedral written for the Society of Anti-and the dean and chapter as governors, the affairs of quaries by Sir H. C. Englefield, fol. Lond. 1801.)

DURHAM UNIVERSITY. The first attempt to establish a university at Durham was made during the time of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Cromwell. It originated in 1649, after the passing of the act for the abolition of deans and chapters, but was not carried into effect till May 15th, 1657, when letters patent were granted, by which the houses late belonging to the dean and prebendaries were converted into a university to be called by the name of 'The Mentor, or Provost, Fellows, and Scholars of the College of Durham, of the foundation of Oliver, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland,' &c. By the same letters patent rent-charges to the annual amount of 9001. were assigned for the support of the persons belonging to the foundation, and leave was given them to purchase and enjoy lands and revenues to the amount of 60007. a year. They were also to take the manuscripts, library books, mathematical instruments, &c. late belonging to the dean and chapter. The college however was never completely settled: at the Restoration the dean and chapter resumed their lands, and this foundation totally disappeared. (Pennant's Tour in Scotland and the Hebrides, 1772, vol. ii., p. 336; Surtees's Hist. of the County Palat. of Durham, vol. i., p. 106.) Oxford and Cambridge petitioned Richard Cromwell, when protector, against the power which his father had

That it shall be lawful for any person or persons whatsoever, having any power to make an absolute disposition thereof, to give, convey, or assure, by any deed or deeds, any messuages, lands, tenements, or other hereditaments, or any estate or interest therein or thereout, or any monies, chattels, or effects, to the said Dean and Chapter of Durham and their successors, in trust for such University as aforesaid, or for any Professor, Reader, or other person or persons holding office therein or connected therewith; any law, statute, or custom to the contrary in anywise notwithstanding. By another act of chapter, dated April 4th, 1834, it was directed that under the bishop as visitor, this university should be managed by the warden and a senate and convocation: the senate to transact the ordinary business of the university and be competent to originate regulations and other measures relating to it, but such regulations and other measures not to be in force until confirmed by the convocation; the convocation to confirm or reject what is submitted to it by the senate, but to have no power to originate or amend.

This university is allowed to grant degrees in the several faculties, which are conferred by the warden and convocation, but the grace for a degree must be allowed by the dean and chapter before it is proposed in convocation. The academical year at Durham consists of three terms, of not less than eight weeks each, called respectively Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter terms; Michaelmas term not com mencing earlier than the 10th October, and Easter term not ending later than 30th June. For the degree of B.A. the petitioner must be a student of the standing of twelve terms from his admission, and have kept nine terms at least by residence. For the degree of M.A., he must be of the standing of nine terms at least from the taking of his B.A. degree. A petitioner for the degree of B.D. must be of the standing of twenty-one terms from his admission as M.A. and a D.D. of thirty-three terms from the same. A petitioner for the degree of B. C. L. must be of the standing of twenty-one terms at least from the date of his

matriculation: and no grace for the degree of D.C.L. can | productions.' Among these may be enumerated the Manbe granted unless the petitioner is a B.C.L. of thirty-three gosteen, the Jack and Bread-fruit trees, the Lanseh and terms' standing. No grace for M.D. is granted unless the Durion, with others which are common in other tropical petitioner is a Bachelor of Medicine of the standing of nine parts. These it has not been possible to cultivate in the terms at least from the date of his admission to that degree. hot-houses of England, even with all the skill of its hortiThis university has also the power to grant Honorary culturists; a circumstance which must be ascribed partly to Degrees. For the detail of the exercises requisite for the great size of the trees, and partly to the peculiarity in proceeding to the different degrees the reader is referred climate of 'India aquosa,' as this part of the world was called to the Statute enacted by the Dean and Chapter, with the by old writers. But as it is only within a few years that Regulations passed under its authority by the Senate and moisture has been combined with heat in the present sucConvocation of the University, 8vo. Durham, 1836. cessful cultivation of Orchideous plants, it might perhaps be possible to make some of the above fruits grow in a similar artificial climate; and by grafting, to make them bear when only a few feet high, as has been done with the | Mango in India.

In addition to the existing college, and any other establishment which may hereafter be founded by statute, halls and houses may be opened for the reception of students by licence, and under regulations from the warden and senate. During the present year (1837) a royal charter has been granted to the university of Durham, which was formally received by that body in the month of June, 1837, and at the same time various gentlemen were admitted to the degree of B.A. The terms of the charter are not yet (June, 1837) made public.

DU'RIO, a genus of which the name has been derived from durion or doorean, a well-known fruit of the Malayan Archipelago. The specific name of zibethinus has been applied to the tree which forms this genus, from the fondness of the Malayan Zibet (Viverra Rasse, Hors.) for this fruit.

The genus Durio belongs to the natural family of Bombaceæ, considered by some botanists to be only a tribe of Sterculiacea. It is characterized by having its five petals smaller than the five lobes of the calyx. The stamens, long and numerous, are arranged in five bundles, and have twisted anthers; the free germen is surmounted by a long filiform style and capitate stigma; the fruit, roundish and muricated, is divided internally into five cells, and easily separates when ripe into five parts; each cell contains from two to four or five seeds enveloped in soft pulp.

Durio zibethinus is a large and lofty tree, with alternate leaves, which are small in proportion to its size; in form they resemble those of the cherry, or are oblong-pointed, small and green above, like nutmeg-tree leaves, but on the under surface are covered with orbicular reddish-coloured scales, as some species of Capparis; the petioles are tumid, and furnished with a pit towards their base; the flowers are arranged in clusters on the trunk and older branches, where of course is also borne the fruit, as in the Jack and Cocoa trees.

The Durion is a favourite food of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season; but there is usually also a second crop in November. It is as remark able for the delicacy combined with richness of its flavour, as for the intolerable offensiveness of its odour, which is compared by Rumph to that of onions in a state of putrefaction, on which account it is seldom relished by strangers, though highly esteemed by many European residents. In size it is equal to a melon, or a man's head, and sometimes compared to a rolled-up hedge-hog (hence it has been called echinus arboreus) in consequence of its hard and thick rind, which is yellow-coloured when ripe, being covered with firm and angular projections. From this appearance has likewise been derived its Malayan name, dury in that language signifying a thorn or prickle. (Rumph.)

The seed, with its edible enveloping pulp, is about the size of a hen's egg; the latter is as white as milk, and as delicate in taste as the finest cream, and should be eaten fresh, as it soon becomes discoloured, and undergoes decomposition. Excessive indulgence in this, as in other fruits, is apt to create sickness, and therefore to its abundance has been sometimes ascribed the unhealthiness of some years; but as the crop of fruit is most abundant when the rains are very heavy and follow great heats, the sickness is probably due as much to the peculiarities of the season as to the too free use of this fruit.

The seeds of the Durion are likewise eaten when roasted, and have something of the flavour of chestnuts. The wood of the tree is valued for many economical purposes, especially when protected from moisture. The rind of the fruit is likewise turned to account by the industrious Chinese, as its ashes, when burnt, from probably containing potash, are used by them in the preparation of some dyes.

Marsden, in his account of Sumatra, quotes a celebrated writer as saying that 'Nature seems to have taken a pleasure in assembling in the Malay islands her most favourite

DURLACH, a circle of the province of the Middle Rhine, in the northern part of the grand duchy of Baden. It contains one town, two market-villages, eight villages, four hamlets, and about 24,200 inhabitants, of whom about 18,500 are Protestants, 5200 Roman Catholics, and 500 Jews, &c.

DURLACH, the chief town, is situated on the Pfinz, at the foot of the Thurmberg, a richly-cultivated hill, about four miles south-east of Carlsruhe, the road to which is formed by a straight avenue of Lombardy poplars: in 48° 59′ N. lat., and 8° 25′ E. long. It is an old town, and was long the residence of the margraves of Baden-Durlach, one of whom, Charles William, built Carlsruhe, and removed the seat of government to that spot. The palace, called the Carlsburg, and its grounds, in the latter of which are four stone columns once set up on the road through the land of the Decumates, in the reigns of Caracalla, Heliogabalus, and Alexander Severus, as well as an altar to Hercules, and several stone tablets with Roman inscriptions upon them, are the chief attraction of the place. It has a church, a seminary for teachers, and a town-hall, eight main streets, about 510 houses, and a population of about 4600. Trade, agriculture, and horticulture, the manufacture of wine, and mechanical pursuits, form the chief occupations of the people. The environs are covered with orchards. There is a large manufactory of earthenware in the town; and it has one of the most extensive markets for grain in the grand duchy. The celebrated German mechanic, Von Reichenbach, was born here.

DURSLEY. [GLOUCESTERSHIRE.]

DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG, a celebrated composer for and performer on the piano-forte, was born in Bohemia, in 1760. His education in the university of Prague was most liberal, and music forming a part of it, he adopted that art as a profession. Dussek came to London about the year 1790, immediately distinguished himself, and might have realized an ample fortune had his industry and discretion borne any proportion to his talents. In 1800 he quitted England, and two years after became part of the household, and also the intimate and confidential friend, of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, who died so bravely at Saalfield in 1806. He then entered into the service of Prince Talleyrand, in which he continued till his death in 1812. 'His compositions,' says the Harmonicon, which reach Op. 77, are unequal, because many of them were produced by contract, therefore adapted to the capacity and taste of the mob of players; but we know scarcely any composer of piano-forte music who has given to the world so many things that are both good and popular at the same time.'

DÜSSELDORF, a county or administrative circle in the Prussian Rhenish province of Juliers-Cleves-Berg, traversed from south to north by the Rhine, and bounded on the north by Holland, on the east by the circle of Münster and Arnsberg, on the south by Cologne, and on the west by Holland and the circle of Achen or Aix-la-Chapelle. It has an area of about 2106 square miles, contains 13 minor circles and 58 towns, among which are Düsseldorf, Cleves (about 7100 inhabitants), Wesel (9950), Duisburg (5500), Emmerich (5760), Mühlheim (7000), Geldern (3600), Kempen (3250), Krefeld (19,300), Ratingen (3950), Barmen (25,100), Elberfeld (24,100), Lennep (4700), Burscheid (9960), Höhescheid (5300), Dorp (4900), Solingen (4550), Neuss (8100), and Viersen (3750). The present number of the inhabitants of Düsseldorf is about 722,500: in 1816 it was 587,278; 1821, 613,811; and 1831, 694,727. It is the most densely peopled portion of the Prussian dominions. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics,

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remarkable are St. Lambert's, the high church, and the oldest in the town, which contains the sepultures of several dukes of Berg, &c., and the church of the Jesuits, a handsome structure with two steeples, but overloaded with ornaments, beneath the main altar of which other sovereigns of Düsseldorf lie entombed. Besides these, there are a synagogue, three nunneries, an orphan and a lunatic asylum, two hospitals, and an infirmary, a polytechnic school, and a Protestant seminary for teachers, ten elementary schools, and ten schools for poor children, supported by the directors of the poor, a house of correction, an obstetrical institution, &c. The number of houses is about 1430; in 1791 it was 852; and in 1825, 1103. The population amounted to 8208 in 1775; 9541 in 1791; 12,102 in 1801; 14,100 in 1816; 18,724 in 1827; and 20,578 in 1831. The present population is about 21,000; and that of the whole township in 1834 was 31,109, of whom 25,833 were Roman Catholics. In 1833, the number of births was 1187, and of deaths 876. The marriages were in that year 260. Düsseldorf is the seat of the provincial government, offices of revenue and taxes, and tribunals of justice, and possesses an academy of the fine arts and design with about 150 pupils, an architectural institute, an observatory, and several private collections in the fine arts, &c.; societies for the promotion of the useful arts, the improvement of prisons, &c., and a bible society, besides a variety of philanthropic

and one-third Protestants. The number of villages is 410, and of hamlets 805. The Rhine enters this county near Rheinfeld, divides it into two nearly equal portions, and after receiving a multitude of rivers and small streams, quits it near Schenkenschanz, where it is 2300 feet in width. During its passage through Düsseldorf it is joined on the left bank by the Erft and Mörs, or Meurs, and on the right bank by the Wipper, Dühne, Düssel, Schwarzbach, Angerbach, Ruhr, Emsche, and Lippe. The northern part of the county is level, and though it contains large tracts of sand, it has also a considerable extent of good arable land and pastures. The soil of the other parts is highly productive in general, but there are many tracts in the mountainous districts, on the right bank of the Rhine, which are sterile, particularly in the circle of Lennep; and there are considerable woods and forests in and near those districts, to the extent of about 303,000 acres. The quantity of arable land is computed at 680,000 acres, and of meadows and pastures at 155,000 acres. There are extensive manufactures of woollen yarns and woollens, silks, cotton yarns and cottons, thread, leather, steel, iron, ironware and cutlery, tobacco, soap, &c. Iron, coals, and potters' clay, are among the native products. Grazing and the rearing of horses and cattle are actively pursued; the stocks in 1831 consisted of 34,973 horses, 154,313 horned beasts, and 77,032 sheep and goats. DÜSSELDORF, a minor circle in the south of the pre-associations. It has manufactories of woollens, cottons, leaeeding county of administrative circle, containing about ther, hats, tobacco, jewellery, mirrors, stockings, &c., and 160 square miles and 64,600 inhabitants, with 4 towns, 37 carries on a considerable trade in cotton, wool, wines and villages, and 41 hamlets: it is bordered on the west by the spirits, colonial produce, coals, timber, slates, and other Rhine, along which runs a range of small sand-hills; and is commodities. It is a free port, and has a harbour for fifty partly level and partly hilly. Its products are corn, pota-vessels. Adjoining the town are the royal gardens, and a toes, peas and beans, and much fruit; horned cattle, sheep, botanic garden. and swine are reared in great numbers. It is divided into 10 Bürgermeistereien,' or townships, at the head of which is that of Düsseldorf (village of the Düssel), the capital of the whole county, formerly that of the duchy of Berg.

DUTE'NS, LOUIS, was born at Tours, of a Protestant family, in 1730. After receiving his education in France, he came to England, and travelled with several noblemen in succession over the Continent, and also acted for a time DÜSSELDORF, the capital, is situated in the centre of as secretary to the English minister at the court of Turin. a fertile country on the right bank of the Rhine, at the On his return to England he was presented to the living of point where the Düssel joins that river, in 50° 13' N. lat. and Elsdon in Northumberland. He was made member of the 6° 47' E. long., at an elevation of about 100 feet above the Royal Society of London, and of the Académie des Inscriplevel of the sea. It was raised from the rank of a village tions et Belles Lettres of Paris. Being well versed in (villa') to that of a municipal town by Adolphus V., duke of antient and modern philology, and in archæology and nuBerg, in 1288: it was first united to the Prussian dominions mismatics, he wrote many works, the principal of which with the duchy of Berg in 1815. The flying bridge across are:-'1. Recherches sur l'Origine des Découvertes attrithe Rhine dates from the year 1680. Düsseldorf having buées aux Modernes, où l'on démontre que nos plus been carefully fortified, acquired the character of a fortress célèbres Philosophes ont puisé la plupart de leurs Connoisin the middle of the last century; but it was never tenable sances dans les Ouvrages des Anciens, et que plusieurs against a serious assault, and the defences were razed by vérités importantes sur la Religion ont eté connues des virtue of the treaty of Luneville in 1802. It is one of the Sages du Paganisme,' 8vo., Paris, 1766. This work went best-built towns on the Rhine, is surrounded by extensive through several editions, revised by the author, to the last garden-grounds, and consists of three quarters; namely, the of which, 1812, he added his 'Recherches sur le tems le Old Town on the right bank of the Düssel, which was the plus reculé de l'usage des Voûtes,' which he had previously whole extent of the town until the beginning of the 17th published separately. In his zeal to vindicate the oftencentury; the New Town on the Rhine; and Charles's overlooked claims of the antients to several discoveries Town (Carlstadt), the handsomest part of Düsseldorf, south which have been reproduced in modern times, Dutens of the Old Town and on the left bank of the Düssel, which oversteps at times the boundaries of sound criticism, and takes its name from Charles Theodore, the elector-pala- seems to wish to attribute almost every invention to the tine, who founded it in 1786. There are 43 streets, several nations of antiquity. 2. Explication de quelques Médailles of which are constructed on a regular plan, particularly Grèques et Phéniciennes, avec une Paléographie NumisFrederic William's street which is planted with rows of matique,' 4to., 1776, to which are added several previouslytrees, and five squares or open spaces, on one of which, the written dissertations on numismatics. 3. 'Itinéraire des old market-place, stands an equestrian statue in bronze of Routes les plus fréquentées de l'Europe,' a work often reJohn William, elector-palatine, of colossal dimensions but printed. 4. Guide Moral, Physique, et Politique des heavy execution, the work of Crepello. Among the build- Etrangers qui voyagent en Angleterre.' 5. Appel au Bon ings of note are the old palace, or rather one of its wings, Sens,' a defence of Christianity against Voltaire and the (the only portion that escaped entire destruction during the Encyclopédistes. 6. Des Pierres précieuses et des Pierres bombardment of the town by the French in 1794), which fines, avec les Moyens de les connoître et de les évaluer,' has latterly been restored for the use of the Academy of Paris, 1776. 7. Histoire de ce qui s'est passé pour l'étaArts and the Royal Mint, and in the court-yard of which is blissement d'une Régence en Angleterre,' 8vo., 1789. 8. another statue of John William by Crepello, in marble; ad- Nouveaux Intérêts de l'Europe depuis la Révolution Franjacent thereto is the Picture Gallery, founded by that elector caise,' 1798. 9. Considérations Théologiques sur les in 1710; but the 358 paintings it then contained were re- Moyens de réunir toutes les Eglises Chrétiennes,' 8vo., moved to Munich in 1808, and it now consists of 65 paint-1798, a well meaning speculation towards a hopeless object. ings, 263 sketches, 14,241 original drawings, 23,445 en10. Mémoires d'un Voyageur qui se repose,' 3 vols., 8vo., gravings, and 155 copper-plates. The other buildings of Paris, 1806, which contain anecdotes of Dutens's life and consequence are the present palace, where the governor or travels. Dutens died in England in 1812. president of the county resides; the government-house, once a college of Jesuits; the observatory, town-hall (erected in 1567), courts of law, new barracks, theatre, public school or gymnasium, with about 320 pupils, a mint, and public library of about 30,000 volumes. Düsseldorf has seven churches, including two Protestant: the most

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DUU'MVIRI, the name given to any magistrates in the republic of Rome who were elected in pairs for the discharge of any class of duties. record was composed of the two judges of blood (duumviri perduellionis), appointed by Tullus Hostilius for the trial of P. Horatius, a right of appeal to the people being allowed

to the accused (Liv. i. 26). This office was exercised by Tarquinius Superbus alone, for tyrannical purposes (Liv. i. 49), and afterwards by the consuls (Liv. ii. 5), who were indeed a duumvirate. The Quæsitores parricidii were afterwards substituted for the consuls, and these were mentioned in the laws of the Twelve Tables (Pompon. 1. ii. §. 23 D); but it seems that the duumviri were again entrusted with the administration of criminal law at the trial of Manlius Capitolinus (Gellius, xvii. 21); and they are mentioned as still existing even by Cicero (Pro C. Rabirio, c. iv. §. 12). The duumviri sacrorum, who took care of and interpreted the Sibylline Books, were also a very antient magistracy (Liv. iv. 21). Niebuhr thinks (Hist. of Rome, i., p. 298, Engl. Tr.) that the number was dictated by a wish to deal evenly with the first two tribes, the Ramnes and the Tities. The chief magistrates in the municipia were also called duumviri (Lips. Elect., i. 23), or sometimes consuls. (Cicero, in Pisonem, c. xi.) Their lictors generally carried little staves (bacilla) before them; but they occasionally arrogated to themselves the fasces. (Cicero, Agrar. ii. 34.) The duumviri navales were two officers, first elected in the year 436 A.U.C. (Liv. Epit. lib. xii.; Niebuhr's, Römische Geschichte, th. iii. p. 282). Their duty was to collect, equip, man, and command the fleets of the republic (Liv. ix. 30; xl. 18 and 26). There were also other duumviri created for special occasions.

DWARF is a technical term employed by gardeners to distinguish fruit-trees whose branches proceed from close to the ground from riders or standards whose original stocks are several feet in height.

DWARFING TREES. Nature, in many respects, can be made to deviate from her ordinary course of procedure, in order to be subservient to the purposes of men. In nothing is this fact more apparent than in the various modes of dwarfing trees.

The trees of our orchards and forests, for example, which grow naturally to a considerable size, can be made to assume all the appearances of maturity and age while only a few feet high; a forest in miniature can thus be created, which has a very grotesque and curious appearance. There are various methods of producing this effect; such as selecting peculiar kinds of stocks and grafting upon them. For example, if the pear-tree be grafted upon the quince stock, or the peach upon the plum, their growth is very much retarded, and their ultimate size is comparatively small: the same effect is produced upon all other trees where there is a difference between the tissue of the stock and that of the scion which has been grafted upon it; or if dwarf varieties be grafted upon stocks of a similar constitution, though taller in growth, the former will still retain their original character. Again, if the branches be bent, and the flow of the sap in any way impeded, or if a quantity of the fibrous roots be cut away, and nourishment more sparingly supplied to the branches, we arrive at the same results.

Sometimes trees are dwarfed by very severe pruning, particularly if this operation be performed in summer, and, although they evidently try for a length of time to overcome this obstruction to their natural size, yet they eventually assume a dwarfed and stunted habit, which, with a little care, may be retained for many years. The Chinese in particular have carried this practice to a great extent, and they ornament their fanciful gardens with miniature forests of elms, junipers, and other timber trees.

The methods of dwarfing employed by the Chinese are the following:-young trees of various sorts are planted in flat porcelain vessels, and receive only so much water as is sufficient to keep them alive; in a very short time the pots are completely filled with roots, which, being hemmed in on all sides, cannot obtain a sufficient quantity of nutriment, and, as a matter of course, the growth of the stem and branches is thus impeded. The Chinese also pinch off the ends from the young shoots, mutilate the roots, lacerate the bark, tie down the branches, and break many of them half through; in short, by every means in their power they contrive to check growth, so that, stunted and deformed by these means, the trees soon assume all the marks of age when only two or three feet high.

There is another method of producing dwarf trees, which may be termed accidental: namely, selecting dwarf individuals and obtaining seed from them. It is well known that when the young seed is fertilized by the influence of the pollen belonging to its own flower, or to the same plant upon which it grows, the future progeny so produced par

takes generally in a large degree of the nature of the parent from which it originates. Now, if seed be carefully obtained from a variety rather more dwarf than usual, some of the plants produced by that seed will be something dwarfer than their parents. The dwarfest individuals again selected for seed will originate a race yet dwarfer than themselves; and thus, with patience and by successive generations, a variety only a few inches high may be obtained from a species two or three feet high, or even higher. This is the origin of dwarf roses, sweet williams, dahlias, and other common cultivated flowers.

With the exception of this last-mentioned method, all the others, however different they may seem, proceed from the same principle; for whether we graft upon stocks whose tissue differs in organization from the scion, or whether we bend the branches, or cut or confine the roots, we prevent the full flow of the sap in all such cases, and thus advance the age of puberty and bring on a fruit-bearing state. When plants have arrived at this stage of existence, all their energies are directed to the formation of fruit; hence forcing a tree into an early state of fruit-bearing is almost synonymous with dwarfing it.

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an eminent American Presbyterian divine, was born at Northampton, in Massachusetts, May 14, 1752. From infancy he made rapid progress in general and scholastic learning; insomuch that, at the age of seventeen, very soon after taking the degree of B. A. at Yale College, Newhaven, he was appointed master of a grammar-school in that town, and, before he was twenty, one of the tutors of Yale College. He was licensed to preach in 1777, in which year, the sessions of the college having been stopped by the war of the Revolution, he offered his services as a chaplain in the American army. The death of his father in the following year rendered it desirable that he should return to Northampton, and the rest of his life was principally occupied in discharging the duties of tuition, first as master of a private seminary, next as president of Yale College, to which office he was appointed in 1795. He also held the professorship of theology. He died January 11, 1817.

His early life was extremely laborious: it is stated that while he kept school at Newhaven his time was regularly divided:-six hours of each day in school, eight hours in close and severe study, and the remaining ten hours in exercise and sleep. (Life, p. 20.) Over-exertion nearly brought on blindness: from the age of twenty-three he was continually subject to acute pain behind the eyes, and was unable, for the space of forty years, to read longer than fifteen minutes in the day. This makes the extent and variety of his knowledge, which was acquired almost entirely through the car, the more remarkable; and the mastery which he acquired over his mental powers by discipline was so complete, that he could dictate two or three letters to different amanuenses at once, and he seldom forgot or found difficulty in producing any fact which was once stored in his memory. In 1774 he resorted to a severe system of abstinence in food and exercise, which had nearly proved fatal. He recovered a vigorous state of health, chiefly by returning to a daily course of strong exercise, and the benefit thus derived led him in after-life to devote his recreations regularly to a series of excursions, of which we have the fruits in his Travels in New England and New York,' 4 vols., 8vo., 1823. These contain a great quantity of information, statistical, topographical, and historical, which, considering Dr. Dwight's mental habits and opportunities, there is every reason to presume accurate: the statistics of course have long ceased to represent the present condition of the country. The historical parts, especially those relating to the Indian history, manners, and warfare, are of much interest. Dr. Dwight's chief work however is Theology explained and defended in a Series of Sermons,' 5 vols., 8vo. It is a course of 173 lectures, delivered by him as professor of divinity on the Sundays in term-time, so as to occupy about four years. His method of preaching was from very concise notes or heads, his eyes not per mitting him to undergo the labour of writing; so that this voluminous body of divinity was not committed to paper till 1805, in which year he was provided with an amanuensis at the expense of the college.

Two more volumes of his sermons, fifty-nine in number. were published in 1827, and the editor intimates that he has more behind. These contain several addressed by him annually, according to college custom, as president, to the

candidates for the degree of B. A., which will be read with interest. Dr. Dwight is said to have been eminently a useful and effective as well as a learned preacher, and his life bore witness to the efficacy of his own belief. (Life, prefixed to his Theology Explained.')

of mordants, or of those substances which, though they may impart no colour themselves, yet enable white robes (candida vela) to absorb colouring drugs (colorem sorbentibus medicamentis). Tyre, however, was the nation of antiquity which made dyeing its chief occupation and the staple of its commerce. There is little doubt that purple, the sacred symbol of royal and sacerdotal dignity, was a colour discovered in that city, and that it contributed to its opulence and grandeur. Homer marks the value as well as antiquity of this dye, by describing his heroes as arrayed in purple robes. Purple habits are mentioned among the presents made to Gideon by the Israelites from the spoils of the kings of Midian.

DWINA, the largest river that falls into the White Sea, and the seventh with regard to length in the Russian dominions, originates in the confluence of two smaller rivers, the Sukhoria and Yug, near Veliki-Usstiug, in 60° 46' N. lat., and 46° 30′ E. long. The Sukhoria, a considerable stream, which flows out of Lake Goubinskii or Kuban, and runs in a very tortuous direction through the south-western parts of the government of Vologda, describes a course, along the whole of which it is navigable, of about 285 miles between that lake and the junction with the Yug. The Yug, flowing down from a morass on the northern range of the Volga mountains, at the southernmost point of the same government, and in the early part of its course washing the walls of Nikolsk in its progress northwards to its confluence with the Sukhoria, has a length of about 248 miles. These two rivers unite below Veliki-Usstiug and the river is thenceforward denominated the Dwina. The Dwina pursues in general a north-westerly direction through the west-days; after which it was diluted with five times its bulk of ern districts of the government of Vologda, becomes navigable before it quits them, traverses the south-western part of the government of Archangel, and discharges its waters through five arms below the town of Archangel into the bay of Dwinskaya, in the White Sea. Its length in a straight line from its source to its mouth is about 312 miles, but, including its windings, it is estimated at about 736 miles. It is navigable from the close of April to the first week in November for a distance of about 240 miles. It generally flows between high banks, and is on an average from 500 to 600 feet in width; at Archangel this width is increased to four miles. Soon after it has received the Pinega on its right bank, it forms a number of islands, which extend to its mouth. Its chief tributaries are, on its right bank, the Vouitsheyda or Vitshayda, the source of which is on the declivity of the Vertshoturi range of the Ural mountains, not far from the sources of the Petshora: this river has numerous bends, and falls into the Dwina near Kershensko, in the centre of the government of Vologda, from which point the Dwina becomes navigable; and the Pinega, in the south-western part of the government of Archangel, which becomes navigable for a distance of about 70 miles from Pineg downwards, and after a course of about 190 miles, discharges its waters into the Dwina a little above the town of Kholmogory. On its left bank the Dwina receives the Vaga, which is navigable for about 75 miles, and joins the Dwina above Poinskoi, in the government of Archangel, and the Yamza, a river navigable for about 90 miles, which has its confluence with the Dwina about 36 miles above Vilsk in the same government. The tides of the Dwina are perceptible nearly 30 miles above Archangel. The basin of the river occupies an area of about 123,900 square miles; the bed is generally of clay, covered with a thin layer of sand. It abounds in fish.

The juice employed for communicating this dye was obtained from two different kinds of shell-fish, described by Pliny under the names of purpura and buccinum; and was extracted from a small vessel, or sac, in their throats to the amount of only one drop from each animal. A darker and inferior colour was also procured by crushing the whole substance of the buccinum. A certain. quantity of the juice collected from a vast number of shells being treated with sea-salt, was allowed to ripen for three water, kept at a moderate heat for six days more, occasionally skimmed to separate the animal membranes, and when thus clarified was applied directly as a dye to white wool, previously prepared for this purpose by the action of limewater, or of a species of lichen called fucus. Two operations were requisite to communicate the finest Tyrian purple; the first consisted in plunging the wool into the juice of the purpura; the second, into that of the buccinum. Fifty drachms of wool required one hundred of the former liquor, and two hundred of the latter. Sometimes a preliminary tint was given with coccus, the kermes of the present day, and the cloth received merely a finish from the precious animal juice. The colours, though probably not nearly so brilliant as those producible by our cochineal, seem to have been very durable, for Plutarch says, in his Life of Aiexander, (chap. 36), that the Greeks found in the treasury of the king of Persia a large quantity of purple cloth, which was as beautiful as at first, though it was 190 years old.*

DYEING is the art of staining textile substances with permanent colours. To cover their surfaces with colouring matters removable by abrasion would be to apply a pigment rather than to communicate a dye. Dye-stuffs can penetrate the minute pores of vegetable and animal fibres only when presented to them in a state of solution, and they can constitute fast colours only by passing afterwards into the state of insoluble compounds. Dyeing thus appears to be altogether a chemical process, and to require for its due explanation and practice an acquaintance with the properties of the elementary bodies, and the laws which regulate their combinations. It is true that many operations of this, as of other chemical arts, have been practised from the most antient times, long before any just views were entertained of the nature of the changes that took place. Mankind, equally in the rudest and most refined state, have always sought to gratify the love of distinction by staining their dress, sometimes even their skin, with gaudy colours. Moses speaks of raiment dyed blue, and purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins dyed red; circumstances which indicate no small degree of tinctorial skill. He enjoins purple stuffs for the works of the tabernacle and the vestments of the high priest.

In the article CALICO PRINTING, we have shown from Pliny that the antient Egyptians cultivated that art with some degree of scientific precision, since they knew the use P. C., No. 559.

The difficulty of collecting the purple juice, and the tedious complication of the dyeing process, made the purple wool of Tyre so expensive at Rome that in the time of Augustus a pound of it cost nearly 301. of our money. Notwithstanding this enormous price, such was the wealth accumulated in that capital, that many of its leading citizens decorated themselves in purple attire, till the emperors arrogated to themselves the privilege of wearing purple, and prohibited its use to every other person. This prohibition operated so much to discourage this curious art as eventually to occasion its extinction, first in the western and then in the eastern empire, where, however, it existed in certain imperial manufactories till the eleventh century.

Dyeing was little cultivated in antient Greece; the people of Athens wore generally woollen dresses of the natural colour. But the Romans must have bestowed some pains upon this art. In the games of the circus parties were distinguished by colours. Four of these are described by Pliny, the green, the orange, the grey, and the white. The following ingredients were used by their dyers. A crude native alum mixed with copperas, copperas itself, blue vitriol, alkanet, lichen rocellus, or archil, broom, madder, woad, nut-galls, the seeds of pomegranate, and of an Egyptian acacia.

Gage, Cole, Plumier, Réaumur, and Duhamel have severally made researches concerning the colouring juices of shell-fish caught on various shores of the ocean, and have succeeded in forming a purple dye, but they found it much inferior to that furnished by other means. The juice of the buccinum is at first white; it becomes by exposure to air of a yellowish green bordering on blue; it afterwards reddens, and finally changes to a deep purple of considerable vivacity. These circumstances coincide with the minute description of the manner of catching the purple-dye

• 'Among other things, there was purple of Hermione (?) to the amount of five thousand talents. Plutarch's Lives, translated by Langhorne, Wan ham's edition, vol. v., p. 240.) Horace celebrates the Laconian dye in the

following lines:

Nec Laconicas miht
Trahunt honestæ purpuras cliente.
(Carm., lib. ii., Ode 18.)
Pliny says that a pound of the double-dipped Tyrian purple was sold in
Rome for a hundred crowns.

VOL. IX.-2 G

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