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apparatus proper to each of these processes is necessary to the sound state of the function of digestion. It is easy therefore to see by how many causes it may be disturbed; in how many different organs the source of the disturbance may have its seat, of how varied a nature the disturbance may be, and how greatly the disturbance of the digestive function may derange the other functions of the body.

appointment, anxiety and hope deferred. Exposure to the influence of cold and moisture. In persons with weak stomachs and delicate skins, a cold damp day, more especially suddenly succeeding a hot day, often produces a severe attack of dyspepsia. Hence it is that dyspeptic complaints are so prevalent when cold and damp weather first sets in. Cold is a sedative to the nervous system, as heat is an excitant; and the depressing effects of cold seem to be peculiarly manifested in the nerves of the stomach. Excessive discharges from the body, as flooding, leucorrhoea, large bleedings from the arm, profuse and It is a common practice among the poor in this country to suckle their children too long. A feeble woman is often seen with a strong child at her breast a year and a half or two years old. The effect upon the constitution of the mother is most pernicious. Emaciation, sharpness of the features, with a peculiar expression in the countenance of languor and exhaustion, a sense of sinking at the pit of the stomach, dimness of sight, giddiness, spectra of different kinds dancing before the eyes, headache, with a small, quick, and sometimes almost imperceptible pulse, and total loss of appetite, are the peculiar characters of this variety of dyspepsia.

In the history of the human family there is no known community of human beings in any country, and no age of human life, in which the first necessity of existence, that of taking food for the nourishment of the body, is not the cause of disease and death to great numbers, and of uneasi-long-continued sweating, and above all protracted suckling. ness, nay, sometimes even of intense pain to far greater numbers. Why is this? Why is the digestive process more productive of suffering, disease, and death in man than in the lower animals of a similar structure, in which the function, considered in a physiological point of view, is scarcely at all less complex? The correct answer to this question would include a clear account of the causes of dyspepsia, and would suggest the appropriate remedies for the disease. Digestion being an organic function, when this function is healthfully performed, for reasons which have been fully developed, it is unattended with consciousness. The first effect of the disturbance of this function is to render the patient not only conscious, but painfully conscious, that he has a stomach. A sense of nausea, sometimes, when the affection is severe, even vomiting, an obscure feeling of uneasiness, fulness, distension, weight in the region of the stomach, occasionally amounting to pain, and even severe pain, flatulence, eructation, a sensation of sinking, and lastly, a loss of appetite, constitute the train of uneasy sensations which, coming on after the reception of food, indicate disordered digestion, and which take the place of the feelings of refreshment and exhiliration which result from healthy digestion.

The state of dyspepsia is most frequently a state merely of disordered function, without any appreciable change of structure in any of the tissues of the stomach. But all the symptoms of dyspepsia are produced in their intensest degree when 'they arise from some organic disease of the stomach. Of these the most frequent is inflammation of its mucous coat. This inflammation may be either acute or subacute. When acute, the nature of the malady is indicated by characters so striking that it cannot be overlooked; but the subacute form often exists for a long period quite unsuspected, producing violent and obstinate dysWhen these uneasy sensations are occasioned by a dis- pepsia, which is often greatly aggravated by the remedies ordered state of the stomach, it is easy to understand, from employed to remove the complaint. The diagnostic sign the exposition already given of the structure and function of this form of the disease is tenderness on pressure in the of this organ [DIGESTION], that the disorder may consistepigastric region. In scirrhus of the pylorus and ulcerain a derangement either of its secreting arteries, or its mu- tion of the mucous glands of the stomach, organic disease cous glands, or its organic nerves, or its muscular fibres, in- not of unfrequent occurrence, there is superadded to the ducing a deficient secretion of the gastric juice, a deficient ordinary signs of dyspepsia a peculiar train of symptoms secretion of mucus, a diminished or increased irritability of scarcely to be overlooked or mistaken. the muscular fibres, by which the motions of the stomach are disturbed. If the gastric juice be deficient, the first step in the digestive process cannot take place, the food cannot be dissolved; if the mucus be excessive, the contact of the gastric juice with the food may be prevented: if the muscular fibres of the stomach are torpid or too irritable, the food may be detained too long or too short a time in the stomach.

The causes of dyspepsia are either those which act directly and immediately upon the stomach itself, or those which act upon the whole body or upon particular parts of it, but which still affect the stomach principally and almost solely. Of the first kind are noxious, irritating, and indigestible substances taken into the stomach as articles of food or drink, such as tainted meat, decayed vegetables, unripe fruit, very acid matters, ardent spirits, &c.; and even wholesome food taken too frequently or in too large a quantity, especially when its nature is very nutritious, as when it consists principally of animal matter, or when a large quantity of nutriment is presented to the stomach in a very concentrated form, or is rendered too stimulating by being highly seasoned; the abuse of fermented and spirituous liquors, which is one of the most frequent causes of dyspepsia in its severest and most fatal forms; and large quantities of fluids, habitually taken at too high a temperature, as very hot tea, coffee, or soup.

Of the second kind, or the causes which act upon the whole body or upon particular parts and functions of it, are want of pure air; hence the frequency of dyspepsia in large and crowded cities, and more especially in narrow and confined lanes and alleys, in the dirty and ill-ventilated houses of the poor. Want of exercise: from physical inactivity all the organs of the body languish, but the stomach first and most. Intense study or close application to business too long continued, implying both want of air and want of exercise. Mental emotion, more especially the depressing passions, fear, grief, vexation, dis

But dyspepsia is often the result of disease situated not in the stomach, but in some other organ. The stomach has been justly called the centre of sympathies, and there is scarcely any disorder of the body which does not affect the functions of the stomach in a greater or less degree. The organs the diseases of which are most apt to produce disorder of the stomach are the liver, the spleen, the uterus, the kidney, the bronchi, and the skin. In this secondary form of dyspepsia, the disease cannot be removed unless the seat of the primary affection, and the true nature of that affection, be ascertained.

The stomach is the organ in which chymification is effected. Chylification is accomplished in the duodenum, and completed in the jejunum, ilium, and mesenteric glands; and the highly important part of the digestive process, that which consists in eliminating and carrying out of the system the non-nutrient portion of the aliment, is performed by the large intestines. Each of these organs may be the primary seat of disease, giving rise to the ordinary symptoms of dyspepsia; but to these there will generally be superadded peculiar signs pointing out the real seat of the malady, signs almost always to be observed if carefully looked for, and the detection of which is of the utmost importance in the treatment of the disease.

The indications of cure are to avoid or remove the remote causes, to remove the symptoms which especially contribute to aggravate and continue the disease, and to restore the healthy tone of the disordered organs. There is no drug, no class of medicines, no one mode of treatment capable of removing dyspepsia when present, or of preventing its recurrence. This can only be done by a careful study of the exact cause of the disease in every individual case, and the precise seat and nature of the affection. The mode of treatment must be modified in strict accordance with theso circumstances; and no mode of treatment will be attended with success of which the appropriate regulation of the diet and exercise does not form an essential part.

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233

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Desmond and Earls of Des- Diagonal, 473

mond [Clare; Cork]

Despotism Monarchy]
Dessalines, 440
Dessau, Anhalt, 440
Dessau (town), 441
Destouches, 442
Desvauxiáceæ, 442
Detachment, 442
Determinate, 443

Detinue, 443

Detmold [Lippe]

Detonation, 443

Detritus and Debris, 443

Detroit, 443

Dettingen, 443

Deucalion, 443

Deule, Canal de, 444

Deuteronomy, 444
Deutzia, 444

Deuxponts (bailiwick), 445

Deuxponts (town), 445

Development, 445

Deventer, 446

Devereux Essex]

Device, 446

Devil, 446

Diagonal Scale, 473

Diágoras of Melos, 473
Diagram, 473

Dial, 473
Dialect, 473
Dialectics, 474

Diállage [Schiller Spar]
Diameter, 474
Diamond, 474

Diamond (glaziers'), 475
Diamond Harbour, 475
Diána, 475

Diana [Medusa]

Diánchora, 475

Diándria, 475

Dianthus, 475

Diapason, 476

Diapason Stop [Organ]
Diapensiaceæ, 476
Diapente, 476

Diaphanous [Transparent]
Diaphoretics, 476

Diaphragm, 476

Diarbekr, 477

Diarrhoea, 477

Diary, 479

Devil in a Bush, Devil in a Mist, Diaschísma, 479

448

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Diastópora [Polypiaria Mem-
branacea]

Diastyle [Civil Architecture,
vol. vii., p. 220]

Dicrúrus [Laniada]
Dictamnus, 480
Dictator, 480
Dictionary, 481

Dictuophy Tia[Madrephyllicea]

Dictys, 484

Didelphidae [Marsupialia]
Didermum [Synoicum]
Diderót, 485

Dídius, 486

Dido [Æneas; Carthage]
Didus [Dodo]
Didymus, 486
Didynámia, 486.
Die [Drôme]

Dié, St., 486

Diemen's Land, Van[Tasmania]

Dieppe, 486

Diervilla, 487

Diesis, 487

Diet [Food]

Diffareation [Marriage]
Difference, 487

Difference, Ascensional [Ascen-
sion]

Differential Calculus, 488
Differential Coefficient, 490
Differential Equations [Equa-
tions, Differential]
Differential Thermometer
[Thermometer Differential]
Difflugia [Polypiaria Dubia]
Diffraction of Light, 491

Diazóma [Botryllus, vol. v., p. Digamma, 491

Digby, Everard, 492

Diástylis, 479

Diatéssaron, 479

Diatonic, 479

259]

Dibdin, Charles, 479

Dicæarchus, 480

Dicælus [Licinus]

Dextrine [Starch]

Dicæum Creeper, vol. viii., p. Digestion, 493

Dey, 470

149]

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Digby, Kenelme, 492

Digest [Corpus Juris; Justi-
nian's Legislation]

Digestion (chemistry), 495

VOLUME IX.

Dipteral [Civil Architecture]
Dipteryx [Coumarouna]

Dipterocarpus, 14

Dipus [Jerboa]

Dioptrics [Optics; Refraction] Directoire Executif, 15

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Diony'sius Periegétes, 2

Diophantus, 2

Diopside [Pyroxene]

Dipyre, 14

Diópsis, 2

Direct and Retrograde, 14

Dioptase, 3

Direction, 14

Dioráma, 3

Directrix, 16

Dioscorea, 3

Dirge, 16

Dioscóreáceæ, 4

Disability, in law, 16

Dittany of Crete, 34

Dioscórides, 4

Disbudding, 16

Ditton, Humphrey, 34

Diosma, 5

Disc, 17

Diuretics, 35

Dip, 5

Discipline, Military, 17

Divan | Diwân]

Diphthong, 5

Discontinuity, 17

vergent]

Diphucéphala, 5

Discord, 17

Divers, 35

Diphydes, 5

Discount, 17

Diphyes [Diphydes]

Diphyllidia [Inferobranchiata]

Discus, 18

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Diphilus [Athens, vol. ii., p. 18] Disclaimer, in law, 17

Diphy'sa [Physograda]

Diplectron [Pavonida]

Diplocténium [Madrephyllica]

Diplodactylus, 11

Diplodon [Naïdes]

Diplomacy, 12

Diplomatics, 12

Dipper [Merulidae]

Dipping Needle [Inclination]
Diprósia [Poecilopoda]
Dipsáceæ, 12

Dipsas, 12

Dipsastræa [Madrephyllica]
Diptera, 13

P. C., No. 560.

Discovery, in law [Equity]

Disdiapason, 18

Dislocation, 18

Disk, 18

Dismal Swamp [Carolina,]
North; Virginia]
Dispart, 19

Dispensary, 19

Dispensation (law), 19
Dispersion (of light), 20
Dissection, 21
Disseisin [Seisin]
Dissenters, 22
Dissepiments. 22
Dissonance [Discord]

Dodecahedron [Solids, Regular]

Dodecandria, 47

Dodo, 47

Dodona, 55

Dodsworth, Roger, 56

Dog, 57

Divergency, Divergent [Con- Dodsley, Robert, 55

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Dodwell, Henry, 56

Doggerbank, 63

Dogma, 63

Dogsbane, 63

Dog's Tail Grass [Cynosurus]
Dogwood, 63

Doit, 63

Dol [Ille et Vilaine]

Dolabella [Tectibranchiata]
Dolabriform, 63

Dolci, Carlo, 63

Dolcigno, 64

Dole, 64

Dolgelly [Merionethshire]
Dolichonyx [Bob-o-Link; Em-
berizida]
Dolichos, 64

VOL. IX.-2 H

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Downton [Wiltshire]
Doxology, 117
Dracaena, 117

Drachm, or Dram, 118
Drachma, 118

Dracína, 118
Draco, 118

Draco (constellation), 118
Draconin, 118
Dragomans, 119
Dragon, 119

Dragon's Blood [Calamus]
Dragoon [Cavalry]
Draguignan, 119
Drain [Sewer]
Draining, 119

Drake, Sir Francis, 122
Drakenborch, 124
Drama, Attic, 124

Dramatic Art and Literature,
125

Drammen, 136
Drastics [Cathartics]
Drave, 136

Drawback, 136

Drawbridge, 137

Drawing, 137
Drayton, 138
Dreams, 139
Drenthe, 146

Dresden, 146

Dreux, 148

Driffield [Yorkshire]
Drill, 148

Drill Husbandry [Drilling]
Drilling, 148

Drimys [Canella Alba; Win-
tera]

Drin, or Drino [Albania]

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Drum [Dome]

Drummond, William, 159
Drupáceæ, 160
Drupe, 160
Druses, 160

Drusus, Claudius Nero, 161
Drusus (son of Tiberius), 161
Dryandra, 161
Dryden, 161
Dryobalanops, 162
Dry Rot, 163
Dshikketei, 164
Dual Number, 164

Dublin (archbishopric), 164
Dublin (bishopric), 164
Dublin (county), 165
Dublin (city), 169
Dubno, 172
Dubos, 172

Ducarel, 172

Ducat, Ducatoon [Money]
Ducis, 173

Duckbill (Ornithorhynchus]
Ducks, 173

Duclos, 185

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Duncan, Admiral, 198

Dundalk [Louth]

Dundee, 198

Dunfermline, 199
Dung [Manure]
Dungannon [Tyrone]
Dungarvan [Waterford]
Dunkeld [Perthshire]

Dunkerque, or Dunkirk, 199
Dunmow Bacon, 200
Dunn, Samuel, 200
Dunning (Lord Ashburton), 200
Dunois, 201
Duns Scotus, 201
Dunstable, 202
Dunstan, St., 202
Dunwich [Suffolk]
Duodecimals, 203
Duodénum, 203
Duplex Queréla, 203
Duplicate Ratio, 203
Duplication of the Cube, 203
Dupuis, Thomas Saunders, 204
Dupuis, Charles François, 204
Dura Mater [Brain]
Durámen, 203
Durance, 205
Durango, 205
Durante, 205
Durázzo, 205
Düren (circle), 206
Düren (town), 206
Dürer, Albrecht, 206
D'Urfey, Thomas, 207
Durham (county), 207
Durham (city), 220
Durham Cathedral, 221
Durham University, 221
Dúrio, 222

Durlach (circle), 222
Durlach (town), 222
Dursley [Gloucestershire]

Dussek, 222

Dusseldorf (county), 222
Dusseldorf (minor circle), 223
Dusseldorf (town), 223
Duténs, 223

Duumviri, 223

Dwarf (fruit-tree), 224
Dwarfing Trees, 224
Dwight, Timothy, 224
Dwina, 225
Dyeing, 225
Dyer, John, 228
Dyke, 229
Dyle [Schelde]

Dynamics, 229

Dynamometer, 229

Dynómene, 229

Dyrrachium Durazzo]

Dy'sentery, 229

Dyspepsia, 230

E occupies the fifth place in the Hebrew alphabet and those derived from it. The vowels, when arranged according to their physical affinity, would lie in the series i, e, a, o, u [ALPHABET], and accordingly the vowel e is frequently interchanged with its neighbours i and a. It is occasionally convertible with o and u.

E.

1. E is interchanged with i. Thus in Latin the oid datives heri, mani, ruri, musai, afterwards took the forms here, mane, rure, musae; and the words magis, videris, tristis, when they appeared without an s, were written mage, videre, triste. The same interchange appears in the declension of the adjective is, ea, id, and the conjugation of the verbs eo and queo.

2. E in Latin often corresponds to oi in French. Thus many Latin infinitives in ere reappear in French with the termination oir, as habere, debere; avoir, devoir. The Latin past imperfect has the suffix eba, which passed through the forms eva and ea to oie and oi. Thus from habebam were deduced aveva, avea, avoie, and lastly avois. This final s does not appear in the oldest forms of the French language. Other instances of the change of o into of may be seen in the Latin adjectives and other words in ensis or esis, which in French have the suffix ois, as Viennensis, Viennois; mensis, mois.

3. E Latin into ie French, as mel, bene, ped; miel, bien, pied.

4. E into a. This is well marked in the dialects of the Greek oopin, Ionic; oopia, Doric, &c. Hence the Latins have often an a where the common dialect of the Greek had e, as unxavn, #λnyn; Lat, machina, plaga. Both forms often coexist in Latin, as tristitia and tristitie. The a is often changed into e in Latin, if a prefix is added, particularly if two consonants follow the vowel, as factus, confectus; pars, expers; castus, incestus; ars, iners.

5. E into o. Especially in Greek, as λεγω, λόγος ; νεμώ, voμos. The Latin language prefers the o, as uw, vomo; πέπτω, coquo; νέος, novus. This change is particularly common in words beginning with a w, or with what was pronounced as a w, the Latin v. Thus vester, velim, verto, veto, were once written voster, volim, vorto, voto. Even in our own language worm (vermis, Lat.), and work (oyov, Gr.), are now pronounced as if written with an e. The Greek even interchanges a long o with a long e, as πaτng, ἀπατωρ, εὐπατωρ.

6. ě Greek is changed into u in Latin before an l, as EIKEλog, Siculus.

E (in music), the third note or degree of the diatonic scale, answering to the mi of the Italians and French.

EADMER, or EDMER, the friend and historian of Archbishop Anselm, lived in the twelfth century, but we have no information respecting his parents, or the particular time and place of his nativity. He received a learned education, was a monk of Canterbury, and became the bosom friend and inseparable companion of two archbishops of that see, St. Anselm and his successor Ralph. To the former of these he was appointed spiritual director by the pope. In 1120, by the desire of Alexander I. of Scotland, he was elected bishop of St. Andrews: but on the day of his election a dispute arose between the king and him respecting his consecration. Eadmer wished to be consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury, who, he contended, was the primate of all Britain; while Alexander contended that the see of Canterbury had no pre-eminence over that of St. Andrews. Eadmer finally abandoned his bishopric and returned to England, where he was kindly received by the archbishop and clergy of Canterbury, who yet thought him too precipitate in leaving his bishopric. Eadmer at last wrote a long and submissive letter to the king of Scotland, but without producing the desired effect. Wharton fixes his death in 1124, the very year in which the bishopric of St. Andrews was filled up. Eadmer is now best known for his history of the affairs of England in his own time, from 1066 to 1122, in which he has inserted many original papers, and preserved many facts which are no where else to be found. His style is regular and good, and his work more free from legendary tales than is usual with the works of his time. The best edition is that by Selden, intitled

Eadmeri Monachi Cantuariensis Historia Novorum, sive sui Sæculi, Libri Sex,' fol., London, 1623. His life of St. Anselm was first printed in 12mo, at Antwerp, in 1551, under the title of Fratris Edmeri Angli de Vita D. Anselmi Archiepiscopi Cantuariensis, Libri duo.' Several others of his works, with the Historia Novorum,' were edited by the congregation of St. Maur at the end of Father Gerberon's editions of the works of St. Anselm, fol., Par., 1675 and 1721. His Lives of St. Wilfrid, St. Oswald, St. Dunstan, &c., with that of St. Anselm, were inserted by Wharton in his Anglia Sacra. (Tanner, Bibl. Brit. Hib.; Præf. ad Opera S. Anselmi ut supr.; Chalmers's Biogr. Dict.) EAGLE. [FALCONIDE.]

EAGLE (constellation). [AQUILA.]
EAGLE (coin). [MONEY.]

EAGLE, Roman Standard. The eagle, as a symbol of empire, is often seen on antient coins and medals, and on none more frequently than on those of the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucida of Syria. As an ensign or standard, borne upon a spear, it was used by the Persians in the time of the younger Cyrus. (Xenoph. Anab. i. 10.)

Pliny (Hist. Nat. li. x. c. 4, edit. Hardouin, tom. i. p. 549) says that, till the time of C. Marius, the Romans used five different animals for standards-the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, the boar, and the eagle-but that in Marius's second consulate they adopted the eagle as the sole ensign for their legions.

The eagle used by the Romans as a standard was of gold or silver: the latter metal, we are told by Pliny, was most frequently used, as the more glittering, and of course more readily seen. It was borne, like the Persian eagle, on the summit of a spear, and was of the size of a pigeon, with its wings displayed. It sometimes rested upon a cross bar on the top of the spear, and sometimes upon shields piled up. On the reverses of some of the coins of Augustus and Galba, in second brass, the legionary eagle is represented holding the thunderbolt in its talons. The small size of the eagle often contributed to its concealment, when the legion to which it belonged was defeated. The name of the legion was usually engraved upon it. Tacitus, in his Annals 1. i. 60. relates the finding of the eagle of the nineteenth legion by Germanicus, which had been lost in the massacre of Varus.

Cicero (Catilin. i. c. 24) says that Catiline had a silver eagle in his house as his tutelar divinity, which was also his standard in war.

A Roman eagle in steel, found at Silchester, presumed to have been a legionary eagle, was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries in 1788 by the then bishop of Carlisle.

The reader will see a great deal of learning displayed upon this and the standard of the cohorts in M. Le Beau's Quatorzième Mémoire sur la Legion Romaine; Des Enseignes.' Mem. de l'Académie des Inscript. tom. xxxv. 4to. Par. 1770, pp. 277-308.

EAGLE-WOOD, one of those substances of which the name, from similarity of sound in a foreign language, has been converted into another having no reference to its original signification. It is a highly fragrant wood, much esteemed by Asiatics for burning as incense, and known in Europe by its present designation ever since the Portuguese visited and imported the substance direct from the Malayan islands and the kingdom of Siam, where it has always been abundant, and long established as an article of commerce. The Malayan name is agila, whence the wood was called pao-d'agila by the Portuguese, and has since been converted into pao-d'aguila, and pao-d'aquila, bois-d'aigle, eagle-wood, and agel-hout.

From the Malayan agila has probably been derived the Sanscrit agara, whence we have the Hindu aggur, if not from the more familiar appellation of garoo, by which eaglewood is also known in the Malayan Archipelago. In Persian works on Materia Medica in use in India, we learn from Dr. Royle (Illustr. of Himal. Bot., &c.) that several kinds of fragrant wood are described under the Arabic name aod (haud and ud of Garcias), and that he himself obtained three kinds in the bazaars of India, called god-i-hindee, aod-i-chinee, and aod-i-kimaree (evidently the al-cemericum of Arabian authors), and that with the above Hindu a Greek

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