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of wandering Arabs became more and more frequent; and the authority of both the caliph and the emîr-al-omarâ, who were moreover often of different opinions, seemed to be at an end. When Jelâl-ed-daulah died, A. Heg. 435 (A.D. 1043), Firuz Abu-Kalenjar was elected emîr-al-omara. During his administration the power of the Arabian empire began to yield to the conquest of the Seljuks, who had taken possession of Jorjan, Tabaristan, Khovarezm, and the Persian Irak, and were advancing towards Bagdad. He died on an expedition into Kerman against Bahram, the governor of that province, who had broken his allegiance to the court of Bagdad. His son Malek-er-Rahîm succeeded in suppressing the revolt in Kerman; but in the mean time Togrul Bek, the sovereign of the Seljuks, had taken possession of Isfahan, and a dissension which had broken out between the caliph and Basasiri, the governor of Irak, rendered the conquest of that province and of the capital itself a matter of little difficulty for the Seljuks. In A. Heg. 447 (A.D. 1055), Togrul Bek entered Bagdad. Malek-er-Rahîm abdicated his office, and remained as a prisoner in the hands of Togrul, who thus put an end to the dominions of the Buide emîr-al-omarâs.

(Umbreit, Commentatio exhibens historiam Emirorum al Omrah ex Abulfeda, Göttingen, 1816, 4to.; Wilken, Mirkhond's Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Geschlechte Bujeh, Berlin, 1835, 4to.)

EMLY, a bishop's see in the ecclesiastical province of Cashel in Ireland. The chapter consists of dean, precentor, chancellor, archdeacon, and four prebendaries. This diocese lies in the counties of Tipperary and Limerick, and contains forty-two parishes, constituting seventeen benefices. Its extent is about forty-one English miles by fifteen. In 1792 there were in Emly diocese thirty-five churches of the establishment: in 1834 the numbers were, churches of the establishment, eleven; other places of worship in connexion therewith, four; Roman Catholic chapels, thirty-one. In the same year the total population was 98,363, of whom there were 1246 members of the established church; 97,115 members of the church of Rome; one Presbyterian; and one other Protestant dissenter; being in the proportion of rather more than ninety-eight Roman Catholics to one Protestant of whatever denomination. In the same year there were in this diocese seventy-four schools, educating 4835 young persons, being in the proportion of 4 per cent. of the entire population under daily instruction; in which respect Emly stands last but one among the thirty-two dioceses of Ireland, being only superior in educational rank to the diocese of Ardfert and Aghadoe.

The see of Emly was founded by Saint Ailbe, who died in the year 527. It was united to the archiepiscopal see of Cashel in 1568, which union still subsists. [CASHEL.] (Beaufort's Memoir of a Map of Ireland ; Parliamentary Returns, &c.)

EMMANUEL COLLEGE, Cambridge, was founded in 1584, by Sir Walter Mildmay, on the site of the monastery of the Black Friars, which he had purchased of a Mr. Sherwood. The original foundation was only for a master, three fellows, and four scholars. There are now twelve, which are called foundation fellowships, besides one founded by Mr. Gillingham, the holder of which receives a dividend arising from a distinct estate, but is in most other respects on an equality with the foundation fellows. These fellowships are open to all counties, but there cannot be more than one fellow of the same county at the same time; and no one can be a candidate till he has taken the degree of M.A., or is at least B.A. of the third year. He must be twenty-one years of age, and have been six years a member of the university. The four senior fellows are obliged to take priests' orders. Sir Wolstan Dixie, some time lord mayor of London, a contemporary of the founder, gave lands for the support of two fellows, distinct from those of the foundation. These fellows have no vote in college affairs, nor have they any claim to college livings: candidates for these fellowships must have taken the degree of B.A., and must be related to the founder, or have received their education at Market-Bosworth School. There are likewise four scholarships of Sir Wolstan Dixie's foundation, subject to the same restrictions. The foundation scholarships of Emmanuel College are open to Englishmen of all counties, but there cannot be more than three scholars of the same county at the same time. The scholars receive upwards of 127. per annum in addition to the weekly payment of 7s. 6d.

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during residence. Besides these there are many scholarships and exhibitions, founded by various benefactors, to be given to the candidates most distinguished for learning and exemplary conduct. Among the principal are five by Dr. Thorpe of 247. per annum, with a preference, cæteris paribus, to the sons of orthodox clergymen; one by Mr. Hubbard of 127. per annum to the best of Dr. Thorpe's scholars; ten by Mr. Ash of 107. per annum; four by Archdeacon Johnson of 241. per annum, with a preference to candidates from Oakham and Uppingham schools; one by Dr. Smith of 167. per annum, with a preference to Durham and Newcastle schools; two by Mr. Richards of 127. per annum, with a preference to Christ's Hospital; one by Sir Busick Harwood of 107. per annum, with a preference to a medical student; and two by Lady Romney of 127. per annum each. Various annual prizes are given in this college: amongst them, plate to the amount of 127. to the best proficient among the commencing bachelors of arts. The number of members of this society upon the college boards, according to the University Calendar of 1837, is 224. There are eighteen benefices in the patronage of the society. To one of these, the rectory of Twyford in Hants, the college nominates, and the heirs of Carew Mildmay, Esq., present: to two others, Wallington rectory in Herts, and Fressingfieldcum-Withersdale vicarage in Suffolk, the master nominates, and the society presents: to two other livings a Dixie fellow is to be presented alternately with one on the foundation. A copy of the statutes of Emmanuel College is preserved among the Sloane Manuscripts inthe British Museum, No. 1739. Among the eminent persons who have been members of Emmanuel College, were Bishop Hall, Matthew Poole, author of the 'Synopsis Criticorum,' Joshua Barnes, Dr. Wallis the mathematician, Sir William Temple, Anthony Blackwall, and Dr. Richard Farmer, the commentator upon Shakspeare, who was master of this college. (Lysons Magna Brit.-Cambridgeshire, p. 128; Cambridge University Calendar for 1837.)

EMMERICH, or EMRICH, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, with a good harbour, in 51° 50' N. lat. and 6° 13′ E. long. It lies in the circle of Rees, in the northern extremity of the county or administrative circle of Düsseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia, close to the frontiers of Holland. It was formerly in the Hanseatic league. There are 4 churches, 2 Roman Catholic and 2 Protestant, a Mennonite place of worship, a minor gymnasium, an ecclesiastical seminary, 2 orphan asylums. The town is surrounded by walls and ditches. In 1765 the population was 3491; in 1817, 4412; and in 1831, 5569. There are manufactures of woollens, stockings, hats, galloons, soap, oil, &c., besides tanneries, wax-bleaching grounds, and a public salt factory.

EMMIUS UBBO, was born at Gretha, in East Friesland, in the year 1547. His father was a clergyman of the Lutheran communion. Emmius studied at Bremen, Rostock, and lastly at Geneva, where he became intimate with Beza. He afterwards returned to his native country, and in 1589 was made rector of the school of Norden, in East Friesland. In 1594 he was appointed to the chair of history and the Greek language in the College of Groningen, and when the University of Groningen was instituted in 1614 Emmius was made rector of the same. He was deeply imbued with classical learning, and he excelled in the knowledge of history, antient and modern. Among his historical works, the most important is the Vetus Græcia illustrata,' 3 vols., Leyden, 1626. The first volume consists of a description of antient Greece, including the islands; the second contains a history of that country; and the third, which is the most elaborate and interesting, gives an account of the political institutions and social manners of the various Greek states; namely, of Athens, Sparta, Creta, Argos, Thebes, Corinth, Syracuse, Corcyra, Samos, Chios, Rhodes, Achaia, Etolia, Massilia in Gaul, Locri in Italy, and Lycia in Asia. The author has also introduced a brief sketch of the Carthaginian republic. The appendix contains an account of the decline and fall of three of the above states, Athens, Carthage, and Sparta. Emmius gives a long list of antient authors from whom he derived bis information. The work is altogether useful, and was still more so at the time of its appearance, when good works on classical learning were more scarce than they are at present, The other works of Emmius are, 2. Opus Chronologicum,' or a General Chronology, fol., 1619; 3. Rerum Frisicarum Historia, à gentis origine usque ad ann. 1565,' Leyden, 1632.

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It is a good history of Friesland, the author's native country, to which is added 'De Frisiorum Republica Commentarius,' published before separately at Embden, 1619. 4. De Agro Frisiæ inter Amasum et Lavicum flumina;' 5. Historia nostri Temporis,' Groningen, 1732. Emmius Ubbo died in 1625, in his 78th year. At the time of his death he was busy writing a history of Philip of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the Great, which he intended as a warning to the republic of the United Provinces against the designs and intrigues of their enemies. He had written as far as the fifteenth year of Philip's reign. Emmius was acquainted with, and appreciated by, most of the learned men of his time, such as De Thou, Gruter, Gomar the theologian, Pezelius, and others. He was especially a favourite with William Louis, of Nassau, the governor of Friesland and Groningen. (Elogium Ubbonis Emmii, Historiarum et Græcæ linguæ in Academia Groningensi Professoris ejusque Rectoris primi, Groningæ, 1628.) EMPALEMENT, an obsolete name of the stamen of a

flower.

EMPANNEL, the writing and entering the names of a jury on a parchment schedule or roll of paper by the sheriff, which he has summoned to appear for the performance of such public service as juries are employed in. [PANEL.] EMPEDOCLES, a native of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished about B.C. 450: he was distinguished not only as a philosopher, but also for his knowledge of natural history and medicine, and as a poet and statesman. It is generally believed that he perished in the crater of Mount Etna. The story that he threw himself into it in order that by disappearing suddenly and without a trace, he might establish his claim to divinity, and the charge of arrogance founded upon that pretension, seems to have rested on a misconception of his doctrine that the human soul (and consequently his own) is divine and immortal.

His masters in philosophy are variously given. By some, like the Eleatæ generally, he is called a Pythagorean, in consequence of a resemblance of doctrine in a few unessential points. But the principles of his theory evidently show that he belongs to the Eleatic school, though the statement which makes him a disciple of Parmenides rests apparently upon no other foundation than a comparison of their systems; as, in like manner, the common employment of the mechanical physiology has led to an opinion that he was a hearer of his contemporary Anaxagoras.

Closely connected with his view of the objects of know ledge was his theory of human knowledge. In the impure separation of the elements it is only the predominant one that the senses can apprehend, and consequently, although man can know all the elements of the whole singly, he is unable to see them in their perfect unity wherein consists their truth. Empedocles therefore rejects the testimony of the senses, and maintains that pure intellect alone can arrive at a knowledge of the truth. This is the attribute of the Deity, for man cannot overlook the work of love in all its extent; and the true unity is only open to itself. Hence he was led to distinguish between the world, as presented to our senses (xóoμoç aiolŋróc), and its type the intellectual world (κόσμος νοητός).

His explanation of the cognitive faculty, which rested
upon the assumption that like can only be known by like,'
is drawn naturally enough from his physical view. Man is
capable of knowing outward things, since he is, like them,
composed of the four elements, and of the two forces love
and hate; and it is especially by the presence of love within
him that he is able to arrive at an intellectual knowledge of
the whole, however imperfect and inferior to the divine.

The Fragments of Empedocles were published with a
commentary by Fr. W. Sturz, Leipzig, 1805, 8vo.; see also
Empedoclis and Parmenidis Fragmenta, ex Cod. Taur.
Bibl, restituta et illustrata, ab A. Peyron, Lips. 1810, 8vo.

EMPEROR, from the Latin Imperátor. Among the
early Romans the title of Imperator was bestowed by the
acclamations of his soldiers in the camp and by a vote of
the Roman senate, on a commander-in-chief who had sig-
nalized himself by killing a certain number of the enemy.
(Tacit. Annal. iii. 74.) The term was gradually extended
to signify a commander-in-chief sent on any important ex-
pedition. (Cic. Pro Lege Manil., c. 2.) But it still con-
tinued usual for the appellation to be bestowed as a special
title of honour for some military service: thus we find that
the small military exploits of Cicero conferred on him the title
of Imperator. C.J. Cæsar assumed the name as a prænomen,
(Imperator C. J. Cæsar), a practice which was followed by
his successors, as we may observe on their coins. (Sue-
tonius, Cæsar, 76.) As examples of this title see the coins
of ANTONIUS, AURELIUS, &c. On the reverse of the coin
of Aurelius we observe Imp. VIII., that is, Imperator octa-
vum, or imperator the eighth time, which shows, as indeed
can be proved from a variety of examples, that the Roman
emperors often assumed the title on special occasions when
they or their generals had obtained some signal victory.
This term Imperator then, it will be observed, under the
early emperors, cannot be considered as denoting any
sovereign power. It was indeed given to private individuals
on the occasion of great military success, certainly as late
as the time of Hadrian, and perhaps later. (Appian, Civil
Wars, lib. 2.)

He taught that originally All was one:-God, eternal and at rest: a sphere and a mixture (opaîpos, piyua)without a vacuum-in which the elements of things were held together in undistinguishable confusion by love (pia) the primal force which unites like to unlike. In a portion of this whole, however, or, as he expresses it, in the members of the Deity, strife (veikos)—the force which binds like to like-prevailed and gave to the elements a tendency to separate themselves, whereby they first became perceptiple as such, although the separation was not so complete, but that each contained portions of the others. Hence arose the multiplicity of things: by the vivifying counteraction of love organic life was produced, not however so perfect and so full of design as it now appears; but at first single limbs, then irregular combinations, till ultimately they received their present adjustments and perfection. But as the forces of love and hate are constantly acting upon each other for production or destruction, the present condition of things cannot persist for ever, and the world which, properly, is not the All, but only the ordered part of it, will again be reduced to a chaotic unity, out of which a new system will be formed, and so on for ever.

After the time of the Antonines the term Imperator seems to have gradually grown into common use as one of the titles which expressed the sovereign of the Roman world, though the name Princeps was also long used as indicating the same rank and power. (See the Dedication of J. Capi tolinus to Constantine.) It may be difficult to state when this term Imperator became exclusively the designation of the Roman sovereign. In the introduction to the Digest (De Conceptione Digestorum), Justinian assumes the title of Imperator Cæsar Flavius Justinianus, &c., semper Augustus. [AUGUSTUS.] In the proemium to the Institutes, Justinian uses the terms Imperatoria majestas to express his sovereign power, and yet in the same paragraph he calls himself by the name of Princeps, a term which dates from the time of the so-called Republic, and expressed the precedence given to one particular member of the senate. The term Princeps was adopted by Augustus as the least invidious title of dignity, and was applied to his successors. From the emperors of the West this title, in the year 800, devolved to Charlemagne, the founder of the second or German empire of the West. Upon the expiration of the German branch of the Carlovingian family, the imperial crown became elective, and continued so until the last century. The title of emperor of Germany now no longer exists, Francis II. having laid it aside, and assumed the title of emperor of Austria. [AUSTRIA, p. 151.] The only other European potentate who uses the style of emperor is the autocrat of Russia, the monarchs of which country, about the year 1520, exchanged their former title

There is no real destruction of anything, only a change of combinations. It must be remarked that the primal forces, love and hate, must not be supposed to be extrinsically impressed upon matter; on the contrary, while strife is inherent in the elements separately, love is in the mass of things-nay, more, is one with it-God. Of the elements (which he seems to have been the first to exhibit as four distinct species of matter), fire, as the rarest and most powerful, he held to be the chief, and consequently the soul of all sentient and intellectual beings which issue from the central fire, or soul of the world. The soul migrates through animal and vegetable bodies in atonement for some guilt committed in its unembodied state when it is a dæmon; of which he supposed that an infinite number existed. The seat of the dæmon when in a human body is the blood.

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of duke or great duke of Russia, for that of Czar or Tzar. |
[CZAR.] In early times it was asserted by the civilians that
the possession of the imperial crown gave to the emperors
of Germany, as titular sovereigns of the world, a supre-
macy over all the kings of Europe, though such was never
attempted to be exercised; an they denied the existence
of any other empire: but in spite of this denial it is certain
that several of the kings of France of the second race, after
they had lost the empire of Germany, styled themselves
Basileus and Imperator. Our own King Edgar, in a charter
to Oswald bishop of Winchester, styled himself Anglorum
Basileus omnium que regum insularum oceani que Britan-
niam circumjacentis cunctarum que nationum quæ infra
eam includuntur Imperator et Dominus.' Alfonso VII.
also, in the 12th century, styled himself emperor of Spain.
It might be easily shown how the title and rank of king
and emperor have been feudalized, as it were, in passing
through the ordeal of the middle ages.

EMPETRA'CEE, a small natural order of polypetalous exogens, related to Euphorbiacea. They consist of unisexual heath-like plants with minute flowers, having a calyx with a few imbricated sepals that change into about three membranous petals, a small number of hypogynous stamens, and a superior ovary with from three to nine cells, in each of which there is a single ascending ovule. The fruit is fleshy and berried. They are small acrid plants, of no known use. Empetrum nigrum, the crakeberry or crowberry, is wild on the mountainous heaths in the north of England. Its black fruit forms an article of food in the northern parts of the world, but is reported to be unwholesome, and to cause headach. A sort of wine has been prepared from it for many centuries in Iceland and Norway; whence the report of real wine which was used at the sacrament being made in those countries.

the same.

Empetrum rubrum.

1, A female flower, much magnified; 2, a pistil; 3, a transverse section of EM'PHASIS, in articulation, is the mode of drawing attention to one or more words in a sentence by pronouncing them with a greater volume and duration of sound, and in a higher or lower note, than the adjoining words. In written language there are several symbols by which emphasis is denoted. In manuscript the emphatic word is commonly underlined; in printing it is common to employ a different character, particularly the inclined character called the Italic. The German printers have introduced the mode of placing the letters of the emphatic word farther apart from one another. In modern languages the employment of some symbol for emphasis is more requisite than in the antient languages. In the latter, where the arrangement of words was less fixed, it was generally practicable by the very position of a word in a sentence to denote its emphatic power. Thus, in the Latin language, the first word of a sentence, or even of a clause, is generally emphatic; so also is the last word; and even in the middle of a sentence the verb is often so placed as to give emphasis to the preceding word. Indeed so closely connected is the order of words in

a Latin sentence with the principle of emphasis, that the utter neglect of this principle in the schools of the present day may be set down as one of the chief obstacles in the acquirement of the Latin language.

EMPIRIC. This word is derived from the Greek (urepizóç, empeírikos) and means a man who derives his knowledge from experience. A medical sect which arose in opposition to that of the dogmatics assumed the name of empirics. Serapion of Alexandria and Philinus of Cos are regarded as the founders of this school. Ever since the world has existed, the human mind, in striving to find out the principles of truth, has considered the matter in two opposite ways. According to one system, the human mind contains the seeds of knowledge; according to the other, the mind is nothing but a blank sheet of paper, on which experience writes that which man perceives through the senses. Aristotle and Plato are still the representatives of the two opposite systems.

The science of medicine has been of necessity under the influence of one of the two opposite opinions, and the doctrine of Serapion or Philinus is nothing but the application of the Aristotelian theory, that nothing can be known by the understanding which has not been previously known by the senses.

Accordingly they maintained that experience was the only true knowledge which was derived from the unerring testimony of the senses; that dogmatism was erroneous, because it derived its principles from mere imagination. They opposed to the theorists their contradictions, and sneered at their learning and acuteness of reasoning as inadequate means of curing diseases.

The empirics admitted three kinds of experience, the one acquired by chance, the second by experiments, the third by imitation; and these three they called the tripod of medical science. However, it is evident that their mode of experience is nothing but a disguised mode of reasoning by analogy. Epilogism, as they called it, is as theoretical as pure dogmatism; for, how can we judge by analogy, if we do not assume some general laws to which the particulars are subjected?

If the empirics had remained true to their principles their name would stand high among the medical profession. But having abandoned the study of nature, and with it all scientific pursuits, they sank into such disrepute, that their name became a stigma. And even in our days when the natural sciences have, by the impulse given by Lord Bacon to genuine experiment, risen to a high degree of perfection, and empiricism is the character of modern science and philosophy, the name of empiric is still bestowed as an opprobrious term upon all ignorant pretenders in the medical art. (Celsus, De Medicina; Curt Sprengel, Geschichte der Medizin.)

EMPYREUMA denotes the peculiar and disagreeable smell and taste resulting from the action of a considerable degree of heat upon vegetable or animal substances in close vessels, which prevent such an access of air as is required for perfect combustion: in this way destructive distillation goes on so as frequently to produce an oil which has a strong, burnt, or, as it is termed, empyreumatic smell and taste.

EMS, a river in the north-west of Germany, which has its source in 51° 50' N. lat., and 9° 11' E. long., on the Havelhof, at the foot of a hill called Stapelag, which is at the south-eastern end of the Teutoburg Forest, and to the north-west of the town of Paderborn in Westphalia. From this point the river pursues a sluggish westward course between low banks to Rietberg, then turns to the north until it approaches Harsewinkel, where it bends again to the west past Wahrendorf and Telgte, and thence flows north-westwards to Schütdorf, in Hanover, below the town of Rheine, where it quits the Prussian territory. At Fuestrup, about five miles below Telgte, it is from four to five feet deep; and about five miles lower down it becomes navigable for small flatbottomed vessels. It enters the Hanoverian dominions above Schütdorf, and traverses them for about 70 miles. The general direction of this part of its course, in which it makes numerous bends, is due north, until it quits the landrostei or circle of Osnaburg, in passing through which it approaches within a short distance of the town of Lingen, and has that of Meppen on its right bank. The Ems in this part, though full of water in the rainy season, is so shallow in dry weather that a canal, called the Ems canal,

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the manufacturers carefully keep to themselves as far as they are able.

ÉNAMELLING is of great antiquity, and was practised by the Egyptians, from whom it probably passed to the Greeks, and subsequently to the Romans, who are supposed to have introduced the art into Britain, because Roman antiquities have been dug up in different parts of our island in which parts of the ornaments consist of enamels. The art was in use also among the Britons, the Saxons, and the Normans successively, as is proved by various specimens still existing; and it would not be difficult to trace its progress down to our own times. It appears, however, that antiently enamels were principally applied to ornamental purposes, but since the invention of clocks and watches their usefulness has increased in an extraordinary degree, there being probably no substance for dial-plates equal to the practice of enamelling have probably never been completely made known to the public; they require extraor dinary care and attention, and artists who may have been so fortunate as to discover any improved mode of operating are commonly too jealous to make it known.

has been opened at a very heavy expense from Haukens-
fähe, about eight miles above Lingen, which runs parallel
with the river, has a depth of five feet, and rejoins the Ems
at the confluence of the Hase at Meppen. From this town
to Papenburg its bed has been deepened, so that in the
shallowest spots it has a depth of three feet. Just above
Papenburg, which lies on the borders of the circle of Aurich,
or East Friesland, the river winds eastwards, and then in-
clining somewhat to the north-east, runs on to Leer, whence
it pursues a northerly course till it has passed Vornhasen,
and from this spot turns to the north-west, and ultimately
enters the Dollart, a bay of the North Sea, in 53° 18' N. lat.
The Oster (East) and Wester (West) Ems, which are formed
by the sand banks Ransel and Borkum-rif, are the channels
by which the Ems discharges its waters into the North Sea.
Between the Ransel and Dollart the Ems is wide, and
separates East Friesland from the Dutch province of Gro-enamel in durability and beauty. The various processes in
ningen. The Ems below Leer widens to a breadth of 300
feet, and between the Dutch and Hanoverian territories its
width varies from five to nine miles. The whole length of
this river is estimated at about 210 miles, and it is navi-
gable for vessels of 80 or 100 tons burden as high as
Papenburg, where it ceases to be affected by the tides.
There are bridges across it at Telgte, Wiedenbrück, Wah-
rendorf, Schönflint, Greven, Hembergen, and near Rheine,
in Westphalia, and at Meppen in Hanover. Its principal
tributaries on the right bank are the Hase, which, passing
Osnaburg, falls into it at Meppen, after a course of about 125
miles; and the Leda, which enters Hanover from the duchy
of Oldenburg, and joins the Ems near Leer, after a course
of about 56 miles. On the left bank the Ems receives the
Aa to the south-west of Papenburg. The basin of the
Ems has an area of about 4914 square miles, the smallest
area of any of the rivers which fall into the North Sea.

The Ems is mentioned by Roman writers under the
Latinized form Amisia. (Tacit. Annal. i., 60, 63, &c.)
EMU. [STRUTHIONIDE.]

EMULSION, a term applied to mixtures which gene-
rally have a milky appearance, and which, in some cases,
are partial solutions, in others merely mechanical suspen-
sions, of oily or resinous substances: thus the oil of the
almond seed may be for a time diffused through water by
trituration, but will ultimately separate and float on the
surface. Many resins are formed into emulsions by means
of the yolk of an egg or of gum-arabic; while gum-resins
contain in themselves the means of forming emulsions with
water. Frequently syrups and distilled waters are added
to render the compound more palatable; but alcohol and
acids should never be used. Emulsions should be used
soon after being formed, as in a few hours the constituent
parts separate or become acid.

EMYDOSAURIANS. [CROCODILE, vol. viii. p. 162.]
EMYS. [TORTOISES.]
ENALIOSAURIANS, a name for certain fossil marine
lizards. [ICHTHYOSAURUS, &c.]

ENAMEL (of the Teeth). [DENTITION.]
ENAMELS are vitrifiable substances, or a peculiar pre-
paration of glass, to which different colours are given, some-
times preserving, sometimes depriving it of its transparency.
Authors distinguish three kinds of enamels; those which
are used to imitate precious stones, those employed in
enamel painting (painting on enamel), and those with which
an infinite variety of small works are made. The prepara-
tion of enamels is very various. In general ten parts of
lead and three parts of tin may be oxidized by continued
heat and exposure to air. To the mixed oxides thus ob-
tained must be added ten parts of powdered quartz or flint
and two parts of common salt, and the whole must be pro-
perly melted in a crucible; thus we obtain a white enamel
and the basis of coloured enamel, metallic oxides being
added in the preparation at the very beginning to give the
required colour. The addition of oxide of lead or antimony
produces a yellow enamel; reds are obtained by a mixture
of the oxides of gold and iron; that composed of gold is the
most beautiful and durable. The oxides of copper, cobalt,
and iron, give greens, violets, and blues; and a great variety
of intermediate colours is produced by mixing them in dif-
ferent proportions. The oxides are sometimes mixed before
they are united to the vitreous basis. These are the principal
ingredients in the composition of enamels; but the pro-
portions in which they are used, the degree and continuance
of the heat required for their perfection, are secrets which

Enamels being commonly laid on a metal ground, the first business is to prepare the plates, technically called coppers, to receive the enamel. This preparation requires much care and nicety, and the process is extremely curious. The metals used to enamel upon are gold, silver, and copper. Of the other metals some are too fusible to bear the fire, and the others, as platinum, &c., are too strong, as it is termed, for the enamel. The best substance to enamel upon is gold, the richness of the colour giving a beautiful tinge through the enamel; but, except for watch-cases and valuable articles of jewellery, copper is generally used on account of its cheapness. Both the gold and the copper should be of the finest kinds.

Enamelling is now divided into two branches, dial-plate enamelling and transparent enamelling; the former including the manufacture of clock and watch plates, with fluxed plates for enamel painting; the other the enamelling of watch-cases, brooches, and other trinkets. The former is divided also into hard and soft or glass enamelling; the hard requiring the most time, skill, and labour. The coppers being duly prepared, the next process is that of enamelling, properly so called.

The enamel as it comes from the maker is commonly in small cakes four, five, or six inches in diameter. In preparing it for use it is split, by means of a small hammer applied to the edge of the cakes, into thin flakes, which are put into an agate mortar and finely pulverized, and then washed with water. The moistened mass is then laid very smooth on the metal ground with a spatula, and when dried is melted, or, as it is called, fired, under a muffle, in a small furnace heated with coke and coal. The back of the coppers is first covered with enamel, and then the face, to which two coats are given, the operation of firing being applied to each. The plates are then carefully polished, for which various substances are used; and when this is complete, they are put for the third and last time into the fire before painting.

ENAMEL PAINTING, which should be called painting on enamel, is of modern date. It was indeed long believed that the encaustic painting of the antients was the same thing as our enamel painting. But though the antients possessed the art of colouring glass, which might have led to enamel painting, they do not seem to have acquired this latter art, the invention of which, as it is practised in our days, is ascribed to the French. In 1632, Jean Toutin, a goldsmith at Châteaudun, painted on enamel, and he and his disciple, Gulden, taught others. Jean Petitot, born at Geneva in 1607, an admirable painter in miniature, carried the art of painting on enamel to a degree of perfection never before attained. He resided long in England, and French writers affirm that he obtained the knowledge of the most beautiful and durable colours for enamel painting from Sir Theodore Mayence, at London, an eminent physician and chemist, who generously communicated his secrets to him, and recommended him to Charles I., after whose death he went to Paris, where he was highly favoured by Louis XIV., and gained a large fortune. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes he withdrew to Geneva. The difficulty of preparing the plates for enamel painting, and more especially the care and caution re

quired in burning in the colours, with the very great risk | pens that the ground will permit a perfect regularity in the attending the operation, had, till within our own memory, dispositions of the several battalions and squadrons; and restricted the ordinary size of fluxed plates, and consethe occurrence of streams or other accidents of the country quently of enamel paintings, to five or six inches; and may break the continuity of the line, or may render it neFrench writers think it would be little short of madness cessary to give it a bent or waving direction. When how to attempt such works on a larger scale. But English ever an army is encamped under tents, it may be regarded artists have of late years so far exceeded these limits, that as a general rule that the line should correspond to that in it would be absurd to hazard any dogmatic opinion respect- which the troops are to be drawn up to engage the enemy; ing the possible extent to which they may go. The late also that the tents of each battalion should not occupy a Mr. Horace Hone was, we believe, the first who ventured greater space in front than the battalion itself would cover much to exceed the usual size. We have seen a beautiful when in order of battle,-a practice which is said to have whole length portrait of a lady, which, if we remember originated with Gustavus Adolphus. rightly, was about twelve inches high, and broad in proportion; but this has been far exceeded by Mr. H. P. Bone, whose copy from the famous picture of Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian, in the National Gallery, measures 18 inches by 16. The same artist had also in the exhibition of the Royal Academy, this year, 1837, a copy of the Virgin and Child, by Vandyke, of even larger dimensions.

When we contemplate such works finished in the most exquisite manner, we cannot but admire the courage of the artist in undertaking them. The brilliancy and permanency of the colours are indeed a great temptation and an ample reward for success. But chances of failure are great, and increase, as we understand, with the size of the work, which is not safe till it has undergone the operation of being exposed to the fire for the last time. Indeed the whole process from the very outset requires in every stage the utmost care and attention, and a degree of skill in the management which only long practice can give. No fault in the design can be corrected; it must be traced in the first instance with perfect accuracy: the fire may destroy the work, but what it fixes, whether good or bad, is unalterable.

ENCAMPMENT is the lodgment or station of an army, with its artillery, baggage, and stores, when it has taken the field for the purpose of a review, or of acting against an

enemy.

Under the word CAMP (ROMAN) there has been given an account of the antient castrametation, and, till the employment of fire-arms in war, it is probable that the manner of occupying ground for military purposes which had been adopted by the Romans continued to be used by the nations formed on the ruins of their empire, such alterations only being made in the internal arrangements of the camp as were rendered necessary by differences in the numerical strength of the principal divisions of the troops.

The length of the front of a battalion of 750 men, two deep, allowing 21 inches to each file, will be 219 yards; and this would be the extent of the line of tents, were it not that the line is regulated by the probable number of effectives, instead of the numerical strength of the establishment. The depth of the encampment for a battalion is of less importance; but, when the ground will permit, it may be regulated by the following disposition, which is considered as affording sufficient convenience.

The tents of the privates may be ranged in two lines parallel to the front, with an interval of about 12 feet as a street between every two companies in each line, and those of the captains and subalterns may be in one line in the rear of these; the field-officers and the commanding officer may occupy a fourth line; the staff a fifth; and the line of kitchens may be in the rear of all. By this arrangement the depth, including a space for the sutler's tent, the bâtmen and horses, will be about 90 yards; but an interval of 16 yards should separate the front of the men's tents from the line of parade, which is parallel to that front. Opposite the centre of the battalion, and about 60 yards in front of the line of parade, are the tents of the party which forms what is called the quarter-guard; and at about 15 yards in rear of the kitchens the party forming the rear-guard is situated. Including all these intervals, the depth of the encampment for infantry will be 183 yards.

The length of front for a complete regiment of cavalry, consisting of eight troops, when formed two deep, is about 320 yards; and this may be considered as the extent occupied by the regiment in the line of the encampment. The seven tents of each troop are ranged in a line perpendicular to the front, and the horses are attached to pickets in lines parallel to those of the tents; the remainder of the space, reckoned parallel to the front, being occupied by the breadths of the streets. In rear of the men's tents and parallel to the The camps of the antient Britons, and those of the Anglo- front are arranged the subalterns' horses in one line; the Saxons and Danes in this country, seem to have been in- tents of the captains and subalterns in another; those of trenched by breast-works made of felled trees, or of earth the field-officers and commanding officer in a third, and the and stones rudely heaped together. Concerning the dispo- kitchens in the rear of all. The standards are placed paralsition of the troops within the inclosure, we only know that lel to the front at 10 yards before the tents of the privates; the Saxons drew up their cavalry in one dense body sur- and the distance from thence to the line of parade is 30 rounding the standard, and that they placed the foot sol-yards: with these dispositions the whole depth of a regiment diers with their heavy battle-axes in front. In a descrip- of cavalry will be 216 yards. tion of the camp formed by Edward II. during his expedition to Scotland in 1301 is contained the first hint we have of any regularity in the distribution of an English army while in the field; this amounts however to little more than that the ground was marked out, and that to every one his proportion of the space was assigned. Within the spaces tents of white or coloured linen were set up, and huts were constructed, the latter probably for the private soldiers. (Grose, Mil. Antiq., vol. ii., p. 205.)

A large army is encamped in two lines which, if the ground will permit it, are parallel to, and at the distance of about 300 yards from each other; and a reserve, generally consisting of the best troops, is formed in rear of the second. The stations of the cavalry are on the flanks of each line. The artillery attached to an army is formed into brigades, and is posted either on the flanks of the camp or with the reserve in the rear; the extent of front, for a heavy brigade, is 69 yards, and the depth, including the line of guns, of limbers, and three lines of waggons, is 82 yards.

The circular tents at present in use are 13 feet 3 inches

Antiently, both the English and French commanders of armies appear to have fortified their encampments when they undertook the siege of any place, particularly if it ap-diameter within the walls (the canvas which hangs vertipeared likely to be of long duration; and P. Daniel states, cally between the conical part of the tent and the ground). that when cannon was used, it was placed for the protection Of the cavalry 12 men, and of the infantry 15 men, are apof the army in large redoubts of wood or earth, called Bas- pointed to each tent. tilles, constructed at intervals along the circumvallation. The same author relates that the English, while they made war in France, went by parties into the country, carrying with them strong palisades to form an intrenchment, behind which they were protected while using their crossbows. (Hist. de la Milice Françoise, liv. vii., ch. 2.)

From a document which is supposed to be of the time of Elizabeth it appears that then an English camp was divided into six portions, of which three were assigned to the cavalry and three to the foot soldiers; and that between every division was a street 80 feet wide. There was also a space allotted for the market, and within this was the park of artillery, surrounded by carriages. It was regulated that no man should pitch his tent within 140 feet of the ring, or periphery of the camp.

In the modern system of war, from the necessity of avoiding as much as possible the destructive effects of the enemy's artillery, and the desire of affording all possible development to the fire of their own infantry, commanders of The soldiers' huts or tents were placed 25 deep; each was armies have been compelled to abandon the square form of eight feet square, and contained two men ; the depth of the the antient encampments, and to adopt that of long and encampment, including the depôts, the officers' tents, and the narrow lines. But with this arrangement it seldom hap-cross streets, was 300 feet; and, including the streets, the

P C., No. 579.

VOL. IX.-3 D

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