yet Kasthofer (Voyage dans les petits Cantons et dans les Rhine. At the peace of Luneville with Austria, in 1801, the Alpes Rhétiennes) saw at Celerina, about 5300 feet above corps was disbanded, and Enghien fixed his residence at the sea, barley and oats, and at St. Moriz, which is about Ettenheim, a château on the German side of the Rhine, a the same elevation, he saw cabbages, peas, carrots, turnips, few miles from that river, and in the territories of the marand lettuce. Potatoes sometimes succeed in certain localities, grave of Baden. An attachment between him and the but the barley harvest is uncertain. The Lower Engadin princess Charlotte of Rohan, who resided at Ettenheim enjoys a milder climate; at Zernetz, 4400 feet above the sea, with her relative the Cardinal de Rohan, induced the duke barley, rye, peas, potatoes, and hemp succeed; lower down to remain there. After the war had broken out again bethe valley, flax is cultivated with success. The cherry and tween England and France, in 1803, the English governother fruit trees are also met with. But the chief wealth ment took the French emigrants again into its pay, and they of Engadin and especially of the upper part, consists in its were directed to go to the German side of the Rhine to act cattle; its cheese equals that of Gruyère, and is largely ex- when required. The duke of Enghien was looked upon as ported. Many of the men emigrate to foreign countries, their head. Meantime the conspiracy of Georges and Picheespecially to Lombardy and the Venetian States, where they gru against the person of the first consul, Bonaparte, was disfollow the trade of pastry cooks and confectioners. Some covered at Paris. It has never been proved that the Duke of of them make money, with which they return home, and Enghien was privy to that conspiracy, but it is evident that build fine houses, which are conspicuous objects in most | he was led to expect an insurrectionary movement in France of the villages. Their fields are therefore either left in favour of the Bourbons, of which he intended to avail himto the care of the women or let, and such is the scarcity of self by entering France at the head of the emigrants. This native labourers, that about 1500 hay makers from the neigh- he did not deny. Bonaparte, alarmed at the conspiracy bouring countries repair to Engadin for the hay harvest, and at the avowed intention of Georges to assassinate him, and are paid at the rate of 1 to 2 florins a-day, besides a seems to have persuaded himself that the Duke of Enghien plentiful allowance of victuals. Masons, carpenters, and was connected with the Paris conspirators, and that the smiths are mostly foreigners. Leather is imported, while whole was a plan directed by the Bourbons in England and a quantity of raw hides are exported. Most of the pastures by the English government. That all the above parties deon the high Alps are let to herdsmen from Bergamo and sired his overthrow is undoubted, and is no more than other parts of Lombardy, who migrate thither with their might be expected, as they were his declared enemies, cattle in the summer months. These herdsmen take along but considerable difference may have existed as to the with them very fierce mastiffs, which are dangerous to stray means which they intended to employ. Georges and his pedestrians or hunters. Chouan friends preferred assassination as the shortest and most congenial to their habits, but there is no evidence that they had instructions to that effect, or were countenanced in it by any of the higher parties, who really seem to have expected an insurrectionary movement in Paris, in which Moreau, Pichegru, and other influential persons would have participated. The insurrection, however, successful, would, in all probability, have occasioned th death of Bonaparte, if not by assassination, at least in th scramble and fight which must have taken place. How far the persons engaged in or countenancing such a plot were justifiable, is a question which cannot be resolved by any code of political justice yet in existence. Bonaparte, on his part, determined upon getting rid of his enemies by summary means similar to those which they employed against him. He dispatched a party of gens d'armes, who crossed the Rhine, entered without ceremony the neutral territory of Baden, surrounded the château of Ettenheim, and took the duke of Enghien prisoner, the 15th of March, 1804. [For the following part of the transaction, see BONAPARTE.] The duke was tried before a secret court, which was evidently influenced in its decision by fear of the first consul, and whose sentence was carried into execution with a most indecent haste. The duke was found guilty of all the charges preferred against him, some of which were never proved. Even the recommendation of the court for a respite to the prisoner was overruled by Savary, who was present at the sitting as a sort of extra-judicial authority to watch over the proceedings. It was altogether a dark affair worthy of the worst times of the old monarchy. Bonaparte at the time openly avowed to the Council of State his firm purpose of making an example of the duke in order to deter the other Bourbon princes and their partizans from plotting against him in future. (Thibaudeau Le Consulat et l'Empire, vol. iii. ch. 41.) And again, at St. Helena, almost at his dying hour, he took upon himself alone the whole responsibility of that deed. (Testament de Napoléon.) After the Restoration, Hullin, president of the court, Savary, Caulincourt, and others who had a share in the arrest, trial, and execution of the duke, wrote each in justification or extenuation of their respective conduct. The fate of the duke of Enghien excited interest and commiseration throughout Europe; he was young, brave, amiable, and one of the most promising of the Bourbon princes. The villages of Engadin are chiefly along the road which follows the course of the Inn for the whole length of the valley, and then leads into Tyrol by St. Martinsbruck, and joins the high road coming from Italy by the Stilfser Joch to Innspruck. [BORMIO.] Several paths lead from Engadin into the other valleys of the Grisons; the principal one is over the Julier leading into the valley of the Albula, and thence to Chur or Coira. Another path over the Maloya leads into the Val Bregaglia, which belongs likewise to the Grisons, and thence to the Chiavenna. Other paths lead over the southern ridge into Valtelina; the most frequented is that over the Bernina into the valley of Poschiavo, also belonging to the Grisons, and from thence to Tirano and Sondrio on the Adda. A road leads from Zernetz in Lower Engadin by the Val del Forno, and over the Buffalora mountain, 6000 feet high, into the Munster Thal, also a Grison district, bordering upon Tyrol, and which opens into the valley of the Etsch. Upper Engadin has eleven communes or parishes, and reckons about 800 men fit to bear arms, and Lower Engadin has ten communes and 1300 men fit for military service. The whole population is estimated at about 8000, of which Lower Engadin contains 5000. Upper Engadin returns three members and Lower Engadin four to the great council or legislature of the canton. Every commune elects its municipal magistrates, and each of the two divisions of the valley has its landamman and its court of justice, the members of which are renewed every two years. The people of Engadin are Protestants of the reformed Swiss church, with the exception of the commune of Tarasp, which is Catholic, and which belonged to the house of Austria till 1801. They speak the Ladin, a dialect of the Romane or Romance language, which has much resemblance to the Italian. There are books printed in Ladin. Schuols, in Lower Engadin, is the largest village in the whole valley; it contains nearly 200 dwelling-houses, and a handsome parish church. Zernetz, also in Lower Engadin, | has about 450 inhabitants. Samaden, which is the principal village of the Upper Engadin, has about 500 inhabitants, some fine houses, and three churches. The families of Salis and Planta, which had once very extensive feudal powers in these parts, and whose rivalry occasioned much bloodshed, are originally from Engadin, the history of which is connected with that of the Grisons' country. [GRISONS.] (Leresche, Dictionnaire Géographique de la Suisse, 1836; Dandolo, Lettere sulla Svizzera, Cantone dei Grigioni.) ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI DE BOURBON, DUKE OF, was born at Chantilly, August, 1772. He was the son of the duke of Bourbon and grandson of the prince of Condé, being a lateral branch of the then reigning family of France. After the French revolution broke out, young d'Enghien served under his grandfather in the corps of the French emigrants who fought on the P. Č., No. 581 ENGHIEN. [HAINAULT.] ENGINEERING (from the French word engin) is properly the art of constructing and using engines or machines; but the term is also applied to that of executing such works as are the objects of civil and military architecture, in which machinery is in general extensively employed. A distinction has long been made between the civil and military engineer; and since every thing relating to the service of artillery is now confided to a particular corps, the duty of the military engineer may be said to comprehend the VOL. IX.-3 F construction of fortifications, both permanent and temporary, I chus, and finished by Darius the First. The canal of The profession of the civil engineer comprehends the In France the title of engineer is extended to persons who are employed for the public service in trigonometrical surveying in the interior of a country or on the coasts, and in the practice of naval architecture. The French have thus a corps of ingénieurs géographes, of ingénieurs d'hydrographie, and of ingénieurs de marine. Engineering must have originated with the first application of a lever for the purpose of moving a mass of any material which exerted a resistance exceeding the unassisted strength of man: by observing the effects produced in operations of that nature, the laws of the action of bodies on one another were gradually discovered, and mechanics, the science of the engineer, arose. Archimedes, in addition to the title of geometer, may with justice claim that of mechanician; and in fact he is the first person who is known to have applied himself to the cultivation of the mixed mathematical sciences. Besides demonstrating the fundamental property of the lever, he determined the centre of gravity in bodies of certain forms, and the positions in which bodies remain in equilibrio in a fluid; and from the celebrity he acquired among the antients by the mechanical contrivances which, according to Polybius, he put in practice for the defence of Syracuse, we may conclude that if those contrivances were not his own inventions, they must have contained improvements upon such as had been in use before his time. Vitruvius wrote his treatise on architecture during the reign, as it is generally believed, of Vespasian. In that treatise he describes the manner of building the walls and towers for fortifying towns, the construction of temples, basilica, theatres, and private dwellings; he describes the principal military engines which were then in use; he also gives some account of machines for drawing and raising weights, of engines for raising water, and of mills turned by water for grinding corn. The work may therefore be considered as comprehending every important object connected with engineering at the time in which he lived. Now he states, in the proem to the first book, that he had been appointed by the emperor to have the charge of the warlike engines; and in another place, that he had designed and executed a basilica at Fanum; it is evident therefore that he united in his person the character of engineer and architect; and among the antients the profession of the former seems to have been always included in that of the latter. The machinarius' was probably the artificer who executed the civil and military machines, or the petty officer who, at the siege of a fortress, superintended the service of the engines. Of the national works executed by the antients, and which are to be considered as properly falling within the province of the engineer, one of the first of which we have any intimation is the canal uniting the Red Sea and the Nile, which, according to Pliny, was begun by Sesostris, or, according to Herodotus, by Necos, the son of Psammeti another example of works of this kind. The introduction of arches in works of magnitude may be said to have constituted an epoch in the profession of the architectural engineer, as the idea of giving to blocks of stone a form which would enable them to sustain themselves in balanced rest by their mutual pressures, the discovery of the means of arranging them on a curve surface, and the determi nation of the magnitudes of the piers or abutments so that the lateral pressure of the vault might be adequately resisted, imply a higher degree of intellectual power than is exhibited in covering a space with a horizontal roof. The Cloaca Maxima [CLOACE] at Rome is probably the most antient example in Europe of this scientific construction; the dome of the Pantheon, and the various arches of the Thermæ and of other public buildings both at Rome and in the provinces, such as aqueducts and bridges, attest the grandeur of the design, combined with purposes of public utility, which characterized the architects who lived under the carly emperors. Vitruvius enumerates several Greeks who had written on machinery; but from his time to that in which Italy rose again to importance after the fall of the empire, little is known concerning the state of engineering in Europe. Subsequently to the last-mentioned epoch, Cardan, Guido Ubaldi, Valerius, and Galileo, in that country, and Stevinus, Huygens, and Descartes, in the north, are distinguished as cultivators of theoretical mechanics. Galileo particularly deserves to be named for his discovery of the laws of motion, his application of the pendulum to the measurement of time, and for his theory of projectiles. From his day to the present almost every distinguished mathematician, both on the continent and in this country, has contributed to the advancement of the mechanical sciences. Previously to the commencement of the eighteenth century the most celebrated practical engineers were Brunelleschi, who built the dome of St. Mary at Florence; Peruzzi, San Gallo, and Michel Angelo, who executed that of St. Peter at Rome; San Micheli, the supposed inventor of the bastion system of fortification; and to these may be added Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. In Holland and in the north of Italy the necessity of securing the low grounds against the inundations of the seas and rivers, and of obtaining an inland navigation for the purposes of commerce, gave rise to the cultivation of that branch of engineering which relates to hydraulic constructions; and the invention of the lock for canals is believed to have taken place in the former country about the middle of the thirteenth century. Indeed we find the profession practised in those countries on an extensive scale when there was not a man in England capable of undertaking the formation of a canal to drain the ground. Before the reign of Charles I. it appears to have been the practice to send to Holland for an engineer when any work of that nature was to be undertaken. But the extension of the manufactures of this country soon after that period, and the consequent augmentation both of its internal and foreign commerce, called forth all the energies of the people, who, at length, in the works performed for facilitating the means of communicating between one place and another, and in the practice of the useful arts, rose to an eminence which other nations have not been able to attain. Among the former may be mentioned the numerous canals and railways which intersect the country; the majestic bridges executed in stone over the Thames; in cast-iron over the Avon, the Thames, &c.; and those on the suspension principle at the Menai and at Hammersmith. And among the men to whose useful talents in this branch of engineering the nation is indebted may be named Brindley, Smeaton, Jessop, Telford, the Rennies, and Brunel. The invention of the steam-engine, or rather its improvement in 1769, opened a new field for the talent of the engineer in the numerous uses to which the machine became applicable. Before the time of Watt it had been employed only as a pump to raise water; but this mechanician, by converting the reciprocating motion of the beam into a rotatory motion, rendered it capable, not only of replacing, with greatly augmented energy, the power of wind, water, or horses, in giving motion to machinery for the purposes required in the arts, but also of serving as a first mover for propelling vessels through water, or for drawing carriages | titioners may occasionally derive benefit from the theoreover land. tical investigations and the practical details of construction which are the subjects of the papers read at the meetings of the members. The professions of an architect and of an engineer, as they are practised at present, may be said to coincide with one another to a certain extent. The members of both must be able to form a judgment of the quality of the ground in which the foundations of their buildings are to be laid; they must be acquainted with the capacities of different materials, wood, stone, and iron, for resisting the strains to which such materials may be exposed, so that sufficient strength may be obtained with a due attention to The course of education by which a student may qualify himself to become an engineer, whether civil or military, must necessarily comprehend a greater extent both of the pure and physical sciences than would be required for a person who is to follow any other profession. It will be, perhaps for ever, a matter of opinion how much mathematics should enter into a school course of engineering; and there are, no doubt, some persons who contend that no more is required than would serve to compute the cost of materials and the wages of labour; this, and the observation of existing examples, being supposed sufficient to enable a man to enter upon the practice of the profession. It is not how-economy; and they must equally attend to the principles ever with such knowledge only that an engineer is qualified of equilibrium in their roofs, arches, and domes, arranging to design an important work which it may be required to the beams, bars, or voussoirs so that they may remain at conduct under new and difficult circumstances. Mere rest with as little strain as possible upon the connecting science certainly cannot make a man an engineer; for ties by which the joints are strengthened. But here the analytical formule relating to mechanical equilibrium or two professions diverge from one another: while the enoperations, being necessarily founded on the erroneous as-gineer has to determine, by a process of levelling, the prosumption that materials are perfectly hard, perfectly smooth, file of the ground on perhaps an extensive line of country, &c., and that the actions of bodies on one another are for a road or a canal; or has to determine the forms and subject to invariable laws, have no practical utility unless dimensions of his retaining walls so that they may resist corrected by observation and experiment. On the other the pressure of earth or water against them; or, finally, to hand, mere diligence in observing the results of practical devise methods of rendering the action of his moving powers operations will never raise a man to proficiency in art uniform, and of transmitting them through a train of maunless he is gifted with very extraordinary powers. A chinery to the place where the effect is to be produced,-the judicious combination of theory and practice is indispen- architect is engaged in designing the external forms and sable, and such a combination can only be made by a man internal arrangements of edifices, in which, whether inin whom great natural talent is blended with all the aids tended as palaces or private dwellings, or as buildings conthat the sciences can afford. secrated to the service of religion or of the state, architectonic beauty must be combined with fitness for the purposes for which they are intended. Of the military engineer it may be said that a greater knowledge of the more minute details of construction is required than would suffice in the civil practitioner; be- ENGLAND, originally Engla-land, Engle-land, and cause it may happen that the former is called upon to exer- Engle-lond, means the land of the Angles, Aengles, or cise his profession in some colony where workmen ade-Engles. The vowel in the first syllable appears to have quately skilled in the mechanical operations may be wanting. The accomplishment of the work may then become impossible, should the officer not be qualified to give the necessary instructions to those who are placed under his direction. It is to be regretted that in the schools of this country there prevails an almost exclusive attention to the studies which may be comprehended under the general term literature; and that, notwithstanding the vast importance of the sciences and arts in promoting the prosperity of the nation, there is not, if we except the military schools at Woolwich, Sandhurst, and Addiscombe, any place of education where young men are instructed in the science of the engineer. In a discourse delivered by M. Bureaux de Pusy, which was printed in 1790, it is stated that the pupils, on entering the Ecole de Génie at Mézières, were required to undergo an examination in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, the infinitesimal calculus, mechanics, hydraulics, and drawing. And these branches of science are said to be but the key to those taught at the institution itself, which are stereotomy (the art of representing the sections of solids), the principles of carpentry, civil and military architecture, perspective, the theory of shadows, and surveying; and with these are said to have been combined the science of military tactics and a course of chemistry. If the above branches of study were considered requisite for the Ecole de Génie, much more, omitting only that which relates to tacties, would they be proper for the civil engineer, who is called upon to design and carry into execution works of far greater complexity than those which appertain to the science of war. preserved its proper sound most completely in the French Angleterre. In the languages of the Teutonic family it has generally slid into the thinner sound of E or Ae, which is nearly, but not quite, the same with our English a in such a word as made. Thus the Dutch say Engeland, and the Germans England, spelling the word exactly as we do. It is to be observed, however, that in this country we have receded still farther from the original form of the word in our pronunciation than in our spelling; for both in England and English, the first syllable is pronounced as if the vowel were not e, but i. This last fact connects itself, in some way or other, with the manner in which the nations of the south of Europe both pronounce and write the word; the Italians saying Inghilterra, the Spaniards Ingleterra, and the Portuguese Inglaterra. But these forms may have been adopted either from an imitation of the English pronunciation, or from some tendency peculiar to the languages of the Latin family (in which case it is possible that our present pronunciation of the word may be an innovation derived, probably not longer ago than the latter part of the sixteenth century, from Spain or Italy); or the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese forms on the one hand, and the English mode of pronouncing the word on the other, may be so many independent exemplifications of a tendency to farther and farther attenuation natural to the vowel sound in this position, the reduction from e to i being only a continuation of the process by which the broad a had been previously converted into e or ae. There can be no doubt, at all events, that the meaning of the word is, as we have just explained it, the land or country It is easy to conceive that the knowledge which a boy, at of the Angles. It is usual to speak of the people who octhe age of entering a public school, can have of the infini cupied the south of Britain before the Norman Conquest tesimal calculus and mechanics must be very superficial; by the names of the Saxons or the Anglo-Saxons; but each and it would perhaps suffice if he then possessed a compe- of these appellations is apt to lead to some misapprehension. tent knowledge of plane geometry, trigonometry, mensura-To begin with the latter: by the Anglo-Saxon people and tion, and common algebra. But it is correct to say that, language seem commonly to be understood the nation and before a youth is placed in the office of a practical engineer, language of the English Saxons, as distinguished from the his education should have comprehended most of the sub-Saxons of Germany; indeed the Anglo-Saxons are often jects above enumerated, particularly the principal proposi-called the English Saxons (for instance, in Gibson's translations in mechanics, hydrostatics, and pneumatics; since it tion of Camden's Britannia, pp. 154-168). In this sense, howis scarcely probable that the means of instruction will ever, we believe, the word is altogether a modern formation. afterwards be within his reach, even were he led by in- Our ancestors before the Norman Conquest did not call clination to seek them. themselves Anglo-Saxons, as meaning the English Saxons or the Saxons of England. Asser indeed designates Alfred as Angul-Saxonum Rex; but the meaning intended to be conveyed by this awkward compound term appears to have been, not the English Saxons, but the Angles or English and the Saxons. When the Saxon part of the population The institution of civil engineers which was formed at London in 1828 cannot fail, by the publication of its transactions, to be the means of greatly assisting such persons as may hereafter enter the profession; and, through them, of rendering service to society itself. Even established prae 3 F 2 According to the statement of Bede, which, repeated in the Saxon Chronicle, is the only distinct account we possess of the invaders from the Continent who effected the conquest of South Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries, they consisted principally of three nations or tribes, the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. (Hist. Eccles. i. 15.) In another place, however (v. 10), he mentions Frisians as being mixed with these; and there are other antient testimonies to the same effect, especially a remarkable passage in Procopius (Bell. Goth. iv. 20), where, in his account of the island under the name of Brittia, he describes it as inhabited by three nations, the Angles, the Frisones, and those of the same name with the island, the Britons ("Ayyhoi Te kai Φρίσσονες καὶ οἱ τῇ νήσῳ ὁμώνυμοι Βρίττονες), each of which nations had a king. Sir Francis Palgrave (Rise and Progress of the Eng. Com., pp. 41, 42) considers the name Frisians in this passage to include both the Jutes and the Angles, as well as the Frisians proper, all these apparently being alike Belgic tribes. By the Frisians,' he adds, Hengist is deemed to be a Frisian king; and the legend of Rowena, or, as they term her, Ronix, is incorporated in their history. A better proof of affinity is to be found in the resem blance of the Frisic and Anglo-Saxon languages, which in many instances amounts to an absolute identity. But the most conclusive argument of the unity of the nations is deduced from the judgments dictated by Wulemar, and incorporated in their respective laws of the Frisians and Angles, showing thereby that they obeyed the dictates of a common legislator.' It is to be recollected, that antiently the Frisians appear to have been spread, in detached settlements, along the whole line of the coast from the Schelde to the North Sea. Down to the eighth century, what was called the Greater Friesland (or Frisia Major), then forming part of the empire of Charlemagne, extended all the way from the Schelde to the Weser. But the Frisians who passed over into Britain with the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, were most probably the Strandfrisii, or inhabitants of the small district called the Lesser Friesland (Frisia Minor), lying opposite to the isle of Northstrand, on the western coast of Schleswig. (See further upon this subject Usher, Antiq. Eccles. Brit., p. 397; and Turner, Hist. Ang. Sax. i. 306.) alone was spoken of, they were never called the Anglo- | was of course also the most appropriate appellation which Saxons or English Saxons, but simply the Saxons, or, as Bede, writing the history of the church thus planted, could the case might be, the West or East or South Saxons. employ. And although we cannot suppose that he was the Then, secondly, with regard to the term Saxons: that first who so applied it, the constant use of it in his great name, we believe, was never used among our ancestors work may be reasonably supposed to have had much effect themselves, in the times before the Norman conquest, as in establishing its acceptation in the sense in which it had applicable to the general population of South Britain: they been there employed. In this way the terms England and confined it to that particular portion of the population English very soon came into universal use as the proper which was of Saxon lineage, and which did not occupy half names of the country, the people, and the language, just as the country. It is true that foreigners did not always they are at this day. strictly observe this distinction, but often spoke of the whole people as Saxons, naturally misled both by the greater celebrity of that name for some ages before the settlement of the Saxons and the other kindred tribes in Britain, and by the circumstance that the first of those invaders that arrived in the country appear to have been Jutes and Saxons. We easily account in this way for the application of the term Saxons to the entire body of the new population by the Welsh writer Gildas, and for its having apparently been generally used in the same comprehensive sense both by the Welsh and the Scots of North Britain from the earliest times. The Sassenagh is still the name given to the English by the Scottish Highlanders and by the Welsh; and antiently the southern part of the present Scotland, which was chiefly occupied by a population of English descent, was known in the more northern parts by the name of Saxonia or Saxony. The prevalence, again, of the term Saxon in modern times, as applied to the entire population of England before the Norman Conquest, and to the language then spoken in the country, is to be attributed principally to the appropriation of the term English in another sense, namely, to the inhabitants and the language of the country since the Conquest, and also perhaps in part to the circumstance of the state which eventually obtained the general sovereignty in the times previous to the Conquest having been a Saxon state. But the name by which the entire population was commonly described in those times by natives of the country was certainly not the Saxons, but the Angles or the English; and that from the earliest date to which our evidence on the subject extends. It is commonly said that the use of the term English as the common national appellative is probably to be traced to the circumstance of Bede, himself an Angle, having entitled his history Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum,' and having, in conformity with that title, applied the name Angli throughout the work as the general designation of his countrymen. But the use of the name in that comprehensive sense appears to be considerably older than the time of Bede, who died in A.D. 735. We find the Kentish king Ethelbert, considerably more than a century before this, subscribing himself to a charter Ego Ethelbertus, Rex Anglorum,' in virtue apparently of his dignity as Bretwalda or supreme monarch, which he held from about the year 589 till his death in 616. Taking this fact along with the other, which is unquestionable, that the kings of Wessex, after they acquired the sovereignty of the whole country, although their own state was Saxon, yet called themselves, not kings of the Saxons, but kings of the Angles and of England, we may safely conclude that the latter had all along been the names by which the whole people and country were commonly known, and that Bede in employing them as he did only followed antecedent usage. We believe the country to have been called England, and the people and their language English, from the time of the introduction of Christianity. To the circumstances of that introduction we would trace this use of the names. The captives from Britain exposed for sale in the market-place of Rome, who first drew upon their country the attention of Gregory, afterwards pope, were Angles, as the well-known pun, They would be not Angles, but angels, if they were but Christians,' which the name of their nation and their fair appearance suggested to Gregory, may remind us. It was the Angles, therefore, that Gregory formed the desire of converting and it was to the inhabitants of Britain considered as Angles that Augustine and his companions were some years afterwards sent as missionaries. These circumstances were enough to fix the name as the proper Christian appellation of the nation. It was that by which the people had been known to the missionaries before their arrival among them, and which the anecdote of Gregory would doubtless endear to these holy men and to their disciples. Hence its assumption by their royal convert Ethelbert, taking, in his quality of supreme monarch, the title of Rex Anglorum, as already noticed. It We may here observe that, although it has been commonly assumed that our present Teutonic specch was brought over by these Saxons, Angles, and other kindred tribes in the fifth and sixth centuries, there are not wanting some writers who contend that it has been known in the island from a much earlier date. Sir John Clerk of Pennicuick was, as far as we are aware, the first who advanced the opinion that the Belgic tribes who, according to Cæsar, occupied the whole or the greater part of the southern coast before the arrival of the Romans, spoke, not a Celtic, but a Teutonic dialect; in other words, a language radically the same with that brought over many ages afterwards by the Angles and Saxons. His 'Dissertation on the Antient Language of Britain,' although written forty years before, was not published till 1782, when it appeared in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica,' 4to., London. Pinkerton, in his 'Inquiry into the History of Scotland' (first published in 1789), claims the credit of having made the same discovery two years before he saw Sir J. Clerk's Dissertation. It is one,' he observes, which in the history of no other country would have been reserved for this century, and which I will venture to say is more important to English history than any yet made, or that can be made. For it not only adds seven centuries to the history of Englishmen, as such, but will, if duly attended to, put the whole history of law, manners, antiquities, &c., in England, upon quite a new and far more interesting footing. Sir Francis Palgrave, in his work quoted above, also inclines to the presumption that a dialect closely allied to the Anglo-Saxon was spoken in Britain long before the arrival of the last invaders' (p. 27). This supposition certainly would enable us to explain some difficulties not other wise to be easily got over, especially the remarkable fact, i that, while the old inhabitants cannot be believed to have been wholly swept from the soil by their invaders and conquerors, but were most probably retained in great numbers as slaves, both domestic and predial, no hint or indication is to be found of any distinction of language having existed between the two races that were thus associated. The first of the Germanic invaders that arrived after the departure of the Romans are described as having been a body of Jutes, under two leaders named Hengist and Horsa. They arrived A.D. 449 at Ebbsfleet, now an inland spot, but then on the coast of the Isle of Thanet, and near the mouth of the Wansum, now a mere rivulet, which divides Thanet from the rest of Kent. The name of the Jutes is variously written Jutae, Juitae, Jotuni, Geatani, Giotae, Gutae, Jetae, &c. It is probably the same name with Getae, and that again is probably identical with Gothi, Scythae, and Scoti. (See upon this subject Pinkerton's Dissertation on the Scythians or Goths, chap. i.) The Jutes who came to Britain with Hengist and Horsa, however, appear to have come immediately from what was formerly called South Jutland, and is now the duchy of Schleswig. They were probably, therefore, in part at least, from the district called the Lesser Friesland, which, as already mentioned, was situated on the coast of South Jutland. The Jutes, according to Bede, were the ancestors of the people of Kent, and also of the inhabitants of the Isle of Wight, and of the part of the coast of Hampshire opposite to it: that is to say, the Jutes settled in those parts, mixing most probably with the former inhabitants. of the Jutes and the old Saxons, descended the East Angles, the Mercians, the race of the Northumbrians, and all the rest of the nations of England.' Alfred, in his Orosius,' also places the Angles in the Danish countries on the Baltic. And Ethelwerd, a writer of the eleventh century, describes Old Anglia as situated between the Saxons and the Jutes, and as having the city of Schleswig for its capital. This account is adopted by Camden: 'Seeing,' he observes, that between Juitland and Holsatia or Holstein (the antient seat of the Saxons) there is a small province in the kingdom of Denmark, and under the city of Flemsburg, called at this day Angel, which Lindebergius in his Epistles terms Little England, I am pretty well assured that I have found the antient seat of our forefathers, and that from this very place the Angles came into our island.' (Brit. Introd.) This district of Angel, or Angeln, is thus described by Dr. Edward Clarke in his Travels,' part iii. 4to., Lon. 1819:- It is called Angeln,' he says, but this word is pronounced exactly as we pronounce England, or Engelonde. (This is not very intelligible). We were surprised at the number of English faces we met; and resemblance is not confined to features. Many articles of dress, and many customs, are common to the two countries. The method of cultivating and dividing the land is the same in both; the meadows bounded by quickset hedges, or by fences made of intertwisted boughs, reminded us of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. The natural appearance of the country is also like the south of England, being diversified by numerous hills and valleys, adorned with flourishing woods and fertile fields.' Angeln, however, is not, as Dr. Clarke calls it,' the part of the duchy of Sleswick which a traveller must pass in his route from Flensburgh to Apenrade.' It lies all to the south of Flensburg. [ANGELN.] The Angles obtained possession of the whole of what is now called England, with the exception of the parts already mentioned as occupied by the Jutes and Saxons; in other words, of all England to the north of the Bristol Avon and the Thames, except the present counties of Essex, Middlesex, and part of Hertford. They also extended their settlements over a great part of the south of Scotland. The following were the kingdoms founded by the several invading bands, the dates being those assigned in the valuable summaries of Anglo-Saxon history, given by Sir F. Palgrave in his Appendix of Proofs and Illustrations to his Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth, p. ccxxix The Jutes under Hengist and Horsa were followed in A.D. 477 by a body of Saxons under Ella, who made their descent on the coast of Sussex. The next leader that arrived was Cerdic, with another colony of Saxons, in A.D. 495. He probably landed somewhere on the south coast, perhaps at Southampton, although one account makes Yarmouth (in Norfolk) to have been the place. The general history of the Saxons, of which their connection with Britain forms only a very small portion, will be treated of in another article. At this period the name, in its most comprehensive acceptation, appears to have been used as that, not of one nation, but of a great confederacy of nations, the territories occupied by which extended from the Baltic far into the interior of Germany. We are inclined however to derive the Saxon invaders of Britain from the immediate vicinity of the Baltic, most probably from the country now forming the duchy of Holstein, with perhaps part of the north of Hanover, or the west of Mecklenburg. Thus si--ccoxl:tuated, they would be the next neighbours of the Jutes and the Angles. And this appears to be the district which their English descendants recognized as the country of their ancestors, or the land, as they called it, of the Old Saxons, as we may learn from the account of Germany which Alfred has inserted in his translation of the Geography of Orosius. The Eald Seaxan' are here described as lying to the north of the Thyringas (or Thuringians); to the south-east of the Frisians (this must mean the Strandfrisians); to the east of the mouth of the Aelfe (the Elbe) and Frysland; and to the south-east of Angle and Sillende (Zealand), and part of Dena (Denmark). Bede expressly brings the English Saxons from the land now called the country of the Old Saxons.' They appear to have eventually occupied Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, the south part of Hertford, Surrey, Hampshire (with the exception of the coast opposite to the Isle of Wight), Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and part of Cornwall. It was not till the year 527 that the first Angles arrived. From that time they made a succession of descents under various petty chiefs, whose names have not been preserved, upon the coasts of Suffolk and Norfolk. In 547, however, a much more numerous body of them than had yet appeared landed under the conduct of Ida on the coast between the Tweed and the Forth, and eventually established themselves in the country to the north of the Humber. Tacitus, who in his 'Germany' has mentioned neither the Saxons nor the Jutes, merely notices the Angli along with several other tribes as lying beyond the Longobardi, and surrounded by the natural protection of their rivers and woods. As far however as anything can be made of his vague account, he appears to place them somewhere in the peninsula of Jutland. This is the situation which is assigned to them both by Bede and other antient English writers. From the Angles,' says Bede, that is to say, from the country called Anglia, and which from that time till now is said to have remained waste, between the provinces 1. Kent, consisting of the present county of that name, founded by Hengist and Horsa, whose followers were Jutes, A.D. 457. From Esc or Eric, the son and successor of Hengist, the kings of Kent acquired the name of Æscingas. Kent subsisted as an independent state till its conquest by Cenwulf, king of Mercia, in 796. In 823 it was finally annexed to Wessex by Egbert; but for at least a century after that date it is still mentioned as a separate though subordinate kingdom. 2. Sussex, consisting of the present county of that name, founded by Ella, whose followers were Saxons, A D. 491. In A.D. 686 it was conquered by Ceadwalla, king of Wessex, and appears to have remained ever after in subjection either to that state or to Mercia. In 828 it finally submitted to Egbert; and from this period,' says Sir F. Palgrave, Sussex and Surrey appear to have been considered as integral portions of the empire of Wessex, but as annexed to the kingdom of Kent and passing with it.' 3. Wessex, including (in its greatest extent) Surrey, Hants with the Isle of Wight, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and part of Cornwall, founded by Cerdic and his son Cynric, whose followers were Saxons, A. D. 519. The Jutes of the Isle of Wight were conquered by Cerdic and Cynric, A.D. 530; but in 661 the island was wrested from Wessex by Wulfere, king of Mercia; some time after which it appears to have asserted its independence, which it maintained under kings of its own till the beginning of the 10th century, when it submitted to Edward the Elder. In the reign of Egbert (A. D. 800-836) the kingdom of Wessex attained a supremacy over the other states, which it never lost afterwards. [EGBERT.] 4. Essex, including the present counties of Essex and Middlesex, and the southern part of Hertfordshire, supposed to have been founded by Escwin, or Ercenwine, whose followers were Saxons, A.D. 527. It is doubtful,' says Sir F. Palgrave, whether this monarchy ever enjoyed independence. It certainly became subject to Mercia in |