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repeatedly reprinted. Dodwell's principal work is con- | adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his property, sidered to be his 'De Veteribus Græcorum Romanorum- and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this que Cyclis, Obiterque de Cyclo Judæorum ac Ætate Christi, springs not from mere necessity, nor from constraint, but Dissertationes,' 4to., Oxon., 1701. He also published in simply from reconnaissance and a true friendship. The 8vo., in 1706, An Epistolary Discourse, proving from the swiftness, the strength, and the highly developed power of Scriptures and the first Fathers, that the Soul is a principle smelling of the dog, have made him a powerful ally of man naturally mortal, but immortalized actually by the pleasure against the other animals, and were perhaps necessary to of God, to punishment or to reward, by its union with the the establishment of society. It is the only animal that divine baptismal spirit; where it is proved that none have has followed man all over the earth.' the power of giving this divine immortalizing spirit since the Apostles, but only the Bishops.' This attempt to make out for the bishops the new power of conferring immortality raised no small outcry against the writer, and staggered many even of those who had not seen any extravagance in his former polemical lucubrations. Of course it gave great offence to the Dissenters, all of whose souls it unceremoniously shut out from a future existence on any terms. Dodwell died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of June, 1711. Of his sons, the eldest, Henry, who was a barrister, published anonymously in 1742, a tract, which has been generally, but perhaps erroneously, looked upon as a covert attack upon revealed religion, under the title of Christianity not founded on Argument;' and another, William, who was in the church, distinguished himself by some pamphlets in the controversy with Dr. Conyers Middleton about miracles; and also wrote an answer to his brother's anonymous tract just mentioned.

DOG, the English name for the digitigrade quadruped which is so faithfully attached to man.

Under the Linnaan genus Canis are to be found the dogs (Canis familiaris); the wolves (Canis Lupus); the hyenas (Canis Hyana); the foxes (Canis Vulpes, &c.); the jackals (Canis aureus); the Mexican wolf (Canis Mexicanus), Xoloitzcuintli of Hernandez: and Canis Thous of Surinam.

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Cuvier arranges under the genus Canis les Chiens,'
the dogs properly so called (Canis familiaris and its va-
rieties); the wolves (Canis Lupus, C. Mexicanus, C. jubatus);
and the jackals (Chacal ou Loup doré, Canis aureus); and
he observes, that the foxes (which Brisson and others have
separated under the name of Vulpes) may be distinguished
from the wolves and the dogs by their longer and more
tufted tail; by a more pointed muzzle; by the pupils of
their eyes, which by day present a kind of longitudinal slit
instead of the round form; and by the superior incisors
being less lobated (echancrées); and he observes on their
fetid odour, their disposition to dig for themselves earths,
and to prey upon the weaker animals. These he places in
a subgenus, including the Zerda (Megalotis of Illiger,
Canis Megalotis of Lalande, Canis Zerda of Gmelin); at
least he terms the Zerdas espèces de renards, though he
seems to consider them as a section, and notices them as
the Megalotis of Illiger: the Hyæna venatica of Burchell,
Hyena picta of Temminck (wild dog of the Cape), termi-
nates Cuvier's Canidæ, and he then passes on to the civets
(Viverra).

M. Lesson, in his Manual, begins the second section of
the Digitigrades with the genus Canis, and he adopts the
following subdivisions:-

Now comes the question-What was the parent-stock of this faithful friend of man? Some zoologists are of opinion that the breed is derived from the wolf; others that it is a familiarized jackal; all agree that no trace of it is to be found in a primitive state of nature. That there were dogs, or rather animals of the canine form, in Europe long ago, we have evidence from their remains, which we shall presently notice; and that there are wild dogs we know. India, for example, affords many of them, living in a state of complete independence, and without any indication of a wish to approach the dwellings of man. These dogs, though they have been accurately noticed by competent observers, do not throw much light on the question. They may have escaped from the dominion or half dominion of man, and have betaken themselves to a vagabond life. It becomes necessary however to examine into the state of these dogs, some of which are entirely wild, and keep to the mountain and forest, whilst others hang about the villages, and though without owners, give tokens of a more social disposition, and are tolerated as the scavengers of the place, which they clear of disgusting incumbrances, somewhat after the Portuguese fashion.

Col. Sykes thus describes the Dukhun (Deccan) dog, Canis Dukhunensis, Sykes, Kolsun of the Mahrattas. Red, paler underneath; tail bushy, pendulous; pupil rounded.' 'This is the Wild Dog of Dukhun. Its head is compressed and elongated; its nose not very sharp, the eyes are oblique: the pupils round, irides light brown. The expression of the countenance that of a coarse ill-natured Persian Greyhound, without any resemblance to the Jackal, the Fox, or the Wolf, and in consequence essentially distinct from the Canis Quao, or Sumatrensis of General Hardwicke. Ears long, erect, somewhat rounded at the top, without any replication of the tragus. Limbs remarkably large and strong in relation to the bulk of the animal; its size being intermediate between the Wolf and the Jackal. Neck long. Body elongated. Between the eyes and nose red brown: end of the tail blackish. From the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail 33 inches in length: tail 84 inches. Height of the shoulders, 164 inches.' Colonel Sykes adds that none of the domesticated dogs of Dukhun are common to Europe. The first in strength and size is the Brinjaree Dog, somewhat resembling the Persian Greyhound, then (1831) in the possession of the Zoological Society, but much more powerful. The Pariah Dog, he states, is referable to M. Cuvier's second section. This is very numerous, not individual property, but breeds in the towns and villages unmolested. The Colonel remarks that the Turnspit Dog, long backed, with short crooked legs, is frequently found among the Pariahs. There is also a petted minute variety of the Pariah Dog, usually of a white colour, and with long silky hair, corresponding to a common Lapdog of Europe; this is taught to carry flambeaux and lanterns. The last variety noticed is the Dog with hair so short as to appear naked like the Canis Egyptius. It is known to Europeans by the name of the Polygar Dog. (Zool. Proc., part i., 1831.) In 1832 the skin of the Wild Dog of Nepal was compared by Colonel Sykes with a specimen of the Kolsun of the Mahrattas above described, and he stated his impression to be that the animals are identical, differing only by the denser coat and more woolly feet of The specific description given by Linnæus of Canis fa- the Nepâl race, a difference readily accounted for by the miliaris is simply Canis caudâ (sinistrosum) recurvatâ’– greater cold of the elevated regions inhabited by it. He dog with tail curled towards the left-and his lengthened declined however pronouncing a decided opinion, which, he description, after enumerating the varieties, of which he thought, could only be arrived at by more extensive comgives eleven, though it may appear to some almost ridi-parison and a full acquaintance with the habits of the W culously minute and not very delicate, is eminently cha- Dog of Nepál. (Zool. Proc., part ii.) In 1833, Colonel racteristic. Cuvier observes that the domestic dog, Canis Sykes placed on the table of the Zoological Society is is, familiaris, Linn., is distinguished by its recurved tail, and címen of the Wild Dog of Dukhun (Canis Dukhunensis, that it varies infinitely besides, in stature, form, colour, and Sykes), for the purpose of comparing it with a skin of the the quality of the hair. It exhibits, he adds, the most Wild Dog of Nepal, (Canis primaevus, Hodgson), 1 gentlesingular, the most complete, and the most useful conquestcently presented to the Society by the last-named gentleproperty; each individual is entirely devoted to his master, their general form, and in the form of the cranium; and

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1st. Those genera which have the pupil of the eye round, including the dogs properly so called, the wolves, and the jackals.

2d. Those genera in which the pupil of the eye contracts vertically, the foxes and the zerdas.

3d. The dogs with hyæna-like feet; the hyæna-dog, Canis pictus, Desm., Hyena picta, Temm., Lycaon, Brookes.

This article will be confined to a consideration of the dog, Canis familiaris, and its varieties: the other subfamilies will be treated of under their respective titles.

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that man has made. The whole species is become our man.

P. C., No. 538.

له

He showed that the two dogs are perfectly similar in

VOL. IX.-I

that in his specimen, equally with that of Mr. Hodgson, the hinder tubercular tooth of the lower jaw is wanting. The only difference remarkable between the two specimens was in the quality and colour of the fur, that of the Dukhun Dog being paler and less dense than that of the individual from Nepal. These differences, depending probably on climate and individual peculiarity, cannot be regarded as sufficient to indicate a distinction between the two races. Identical as they are in form and habits, Colonel Sykes considered them as belonging to one species. (Zool. Proc., part i., 1833, and see a more detailed account in the 'Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society.')

Mr. Hodgson, in a paper 'On the Mammalia of Nepal, published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta,' mentions, inter alia, under the title of Canis familiaris, Linn., the Pariah as the only Dog of the lower and central regions. The Thibetan Mastiff, he states, is limited to Kachar (Cachar), into which it was introduced from its native country, but in which it degenerates rapidly; there are, he observes, several varieties of it; he also notices his Canis primavus. (Zool. Proc., part ii., 1834.)

These contributions we consider very interesting; but we must be on our guard against the begging of the question, which lurks under the specific name primavus, given by a gentleman to whom Indian zoology owes so much, and it is for this reason that we have laid before the reader the comparative views of Colonel Sykes, who has so widely extended our knowledge of the Oriental Fauna.

Mr. Bell in his History of British Quadrupeds,' approaches this difficult question more boldly than most zoologists. In order,' says Mr. Bell, 'to come to any rational conclusion on this head, it will be necessary to ascertain to what type the animal approaches most nearly, after having for many successive generations existed in a wild state, removed from the influence of domestication and of association with mankind. Now we find that there are several different instances of the existence of dogs in such a state of wildness as to have lost even that common character of domestication, variety of colour and marking. Of these two very remarkable ones are the Dhole of India, and the Dingo of Australia: there is besides a half-reclaimed race amongst the Indians of North America; and another, also partially tamed, in South America, which deserve attention; and it is found that these races, in different degrees, and in a greater degree as they are more wild, exhibit the lank and gaunt form, the lengthened limbs, the long and slender muzzle, and the great comparative strength which characterize the wolf; and that the tail of the Australian dog, which may be considered as the most remote from a state of domestication, assumes the slightly bushy form of that animal. We have here then a considerable approximation to a well-known wild animal of the same genus, in races which, though doubtless descended from domesticated ancestors, have gradually assumed the wild condition; and it is worthy of especial remark, that the anatomy of the wolf, and its osteology in particular, does not differ from that of the dogs in general, more than the different kinds of dogs do from each other. The cranium is absolutely similar, and so are all, or nearly all, the other essential parts; and to strengthen still further the probability of their identity, the dog and wolf will readily breed together, and their progeny is fertile. The obliquity of the position of the eyes in the wolf is one of the characters in which it differs from the dogs; and although it is very desirable not to rest too much upon the effects of habit or structure, it is not perhaps straining the point to attribute the forward direction of the eyes in the dogs to the constant habit, for many successive generations, of looking forwards to their master and obeying his voice."

Another criterion, and a sound one is, the identity of gestation. Sixty-three days form the period during which the bitch goes with young. Precisely the same time elapses before the she wolf gives birth to her offspring. Upon Buffon's instance of seventy-three days, or rather the possibility of such a duration in the gestation of a particular she-wolf, we do not lay much stress when opposed by such strong evidence of the usual period being sixty three days. The young of both wolf and dog are born blind, and see at the same or about the same time, viz., at the expiration of the tenth or twelfth day.

Hunter's important experiments proved without doubt that the wolf and the jackal would breed with the dog; but he had not sufficient data for coming to the conclusion that

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Mr. Bell disposes of the objection arising from the al leged untameably savage disposition of the wolf by relating two anecdotes, one on his own authority, and the other on that of M. F. Cuvier, in proof of the susceptibility of attachment to man, and the appetite-for it is an appetite-for his caresses on the part of the wolf. The first occurred in the Gardens of the Zoological Society in the Regent's Park, London, and was exhibited in the person of a she-wolf, who came forward to be caressed, and even brought her pups to be caressed also, whenever Mr. Bell or any one whom she knew approached her den. Indeed she killed all her unfortunate young ones in succession, by rubbing them against the bars of her cage in her zeal to have them fondled by her friends. The second happened in the Ménagerie du Roi at Paris, and no faithful dog could show more affecting instances of attachment to his master or distress on account of his absence than did the male wolf which is the subject of M. F. Cuvier's touching account. 'With all these analogous properties of form and structure'-we quote Mr. Bell as well as of disposition, I cannot but incline at least to the opinion that the wolf is the original source from which all our domestic dogs have sprung: nor do I see in the great variety which exists in the different races sufficient ground for concluding that they may not, all of them, have descended from one common stock. The turnspit and the mastiff, the pug and the greyhound, are perhaps more unlike each other than any of the varieties of other domestic animals; but if it be true that variation depends upon habit and education, the very different employments to which dogs have in all ages been trained, and the various climates to which they have been naturalized, must not be lost sight of as collateral agents in producing these different forms. The care, too, with which dogs of particular breeds are matched with similar ones, for the purpose of keeping the progeny as pure as possible, has doubtless its effect in promoting such distinctions.' The same author thus sums up his opinion. Upon the whole, the argument in favour of the view which I have taken, that the wolf is probably the original of all the canine races, may be thus stated: the structure of the animal is identical, or so nearly so as to afford the strongest à priori evidence in its favour. The dog must have been derived from an animal susceptible of the highest degree of domestication, and capable of great affection for mankind; which has been abundantly proved of the wolf. Dogs having returned to a wild state, and continued in that condition through many generations, exhibit characters which approximate more and more to those of the wolf, in proportion as the inluence of domestication ceases to act. The two animals will breed together, and produce fertile young. The period of gestation is the same.'

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Skull of Canada Wolf; from F. Cuvier.
DOG.

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Such is M. Lesson's statement of the denti

tion of the great genus Canis of Linnæus. M. F. Cuvier
says, that dogs in general have forty-nine teeth, viz. six
incisors, two canines, three false molars, one carnassier,
and two tubercular teeth in the upper jaw; and six incisors,
two canines, three false molars, one carnassier, and two tu-
bercular teeth in the lower jaw. Of all these teeth, he ob-
serves, none change their shape in any appreciable degree
in any race whatever. Only there is sometimes found an
additional false molar or tubercular tooth.*

Fore feet with five toes; hind feet with four toes; claws
not retractile.

M. F. Cuvier observes that these supernumerary teeth are developed in each jaw, but that he never saw them developed on each side in the same individual. When, for example, the left intermaxillary bone has a fifth false molar. the right intermaxillary bone has only the usual number; and it is the same with regard to the supernumerary tubercular tooth which is sometimes found in the upper jaw. As these modifications are not perpetunted, M. F. Cuvier places them among those casualties which give no foundation for the establishment of any rule.

Feet of Dogs; from F. Cuvier.

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Generally speaking, all dogs have five toes on the fore
feet, and four on the hind feet, with the rudiment of a fifth
metatarsal bone, which does not show itself externally,
Nevertheless some dogs have this fifth toe very long and
well proportioned, and advancing as far as the origin of the
first phalanx of the neighbouring toe; and in those dogs
which have only a rudimentary fifth bone of the tarsus,
this bone articulates itself to the lower facet of the great
cuneiform bone, which is itself placed in relation with the
scaphoid bone, the second cuneiform bone, and the second
bone of the metatarsus, counting as one the rudiment in
question. But in the dogs that have the fifth toe complete,
a fourth cuneiform bone is developed between the first and
the second toe, and in that case, in some varieties, the great
cuneiform bone elevates itself, and on its internal side offers
a large articulating facet to the astragalus.

The tail is very variable in the number of caudal vertebræ
which range from twenty-one down to three or even two.
In following out our inquiry as to the domesticated
dog, we naturally seek for that variety which is found with
man in his most uncivilized state, as the point of com-
mencement. Some of the New Hollanders, perhaps, ap-
proach nearer to the state of nature than any other savages.
Let us see what dog is associated with these people.

The New Holland dog, or as it is more generally termed, the Australian dog or Dingo, is so wolf-like in its appearance, that Bewick figures it as 'the New South Wales wolf.' Governor Phillip describes the height of this species, when standing erect, as rather less than two feet, and the length two feet and a half. The head, he says, is formed much like that of a fox, the ears short and erect, with whiskers from one to two inches in length on the muzzle. The general colour of the upper parts is pale brown, growing lighter towards the belly; the hind part of the fore-legs, and the fore part of the hinder ones white, as are the feet of both: the tail is of a moderate length, somewhat bushy, but in a less degree than that of a fox: the teeth, he adds, are much the same as is usual in the genus.

of these is in the possession of Mr. Lascelles, of which we have received much the same account in respect of its ferocity; whence it is scarcely to be expected that this elegant animal will ever become familiar.'

Dampier, in his voyage to New Holland (1699), well describes the Dingos, where he says that his men saw two or three beasts like hungry wolves, lean like so many skeletons, being nothing but skin and bones.' Indeed ill-treatment of the dog seems to be the characteristic of savage or semibarbarous nations. Thus Lawson, in his History of Carolina, 'When all the viands were brought in, the first figure began with kicking out the dogs, which are seemingly wolves, made tame with starving and beating, they being the worst dog-masters in the world; so that it is an infallible cure for sore eyes ever to see an Indian's dog fat.' Among the oriental nations the natives of Java seem to treat their dogs almost as scurvily as the wild American Indians did in Lawson's time. (DEER, vol. viii., p 362-3.) To return to the Dingo. Mr. Bennett, in his Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society, vol. i. (1830), thus writes:- The specimens in the Garden appear to have shaken off some of their original wildness, and to have begun to accustom themselves in some degree to the cir cumstances in which they are placed. One of them has been for nearly two years in the Society's possession: the second is a much later acquisition.' This is remarkable as indicative of an approach to greater domestication, but the following statement by Mr. Bell, in his work above quoted (1836), carries this much farther, and enables us to trace the first effect of the more mild dominion of man upon this wolf-like dog. The effect of domestication in producing variation in colour, to which allusion has already been made, has lately been exhibited in a very striking and interesting manner in the menagerie of the Zoological Society. An Australian bitch, or Dingo, had a litter of puppies, the father of which was also of that breed: both of them had been taken in the wild state, but were of the uniform reddish brown colour which belongs to the race, and the mother had never bred before; but the young, bred in confinement, and in a half domesticated state, were all of them more or less spotted.

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Skull of Dingo; from F. Cuvier.

This description may be considered as accurate, with the exception that the animal generally bears a greater affinity to the wolf than the fox. It has,' says the author last quoted, describing a female, 'much of the manners of the dog, but is of a very savage nature, and not likely to change this particular. It laps like other dogs, but neither larks nor growls if vexed and teased; instead of which, it erects the hairs of the whole body like bristles, and seems furious: it is very eager after its prey, and is fond of rabbits or chickens raw, but will not touch dressed meat. From its fierceness and agility it has greatly the advantage of other animals much superior in size; for a very fine French fox-dog being put to it, in a moment it seized him by the loins and would have soon put an end to his existence had not help been at hand. With the utmost ease it is able to leap over the back of an ass, and was very near worrying one to death, having fastened on it so that the creature was not able to disengage himself without assistance; it has also been known to run down both deer and sheep. A second

Dingo, Camis familiaris Australasir.

'If we turn to the dogs of other comparatively uncivilized
nations we find the prick ears and other indications of the
half-reclaimed animal. The Esquimaux dog, Canis fami-
liaris Borealis, and the Hare-Indian, or Mackenzie River
dog, Canis familiaris Lagopus, will occur as instances to
those who have been familiar-and who are not?-with the
histories of our northern expeditions, and the garden of the
Zoological Society of London in the Regent's Park. In
that menagerie the three dogs last named might at one
time be seen side by side, affording the best opportuni-
ties for comparison. Peter, the Esquimaux dog, kept in
the garden, was of a dingy white with a tinge of yellow
on the upper parts, gradually fading away upon the sides;
in short, of nearly a uniform colour, but in general this
race exhibits a predominance of black markings. Thus
Akshelli brought from the Polar sea by Mr. Richards in
Captain Parry's first voyage, and described by Mr. Children
in the Zoological Journal, was almost entirely blackish, or
of a colour nearly approaching to black on the upper parts,
and white underneath, tail included. Akshelli seldom
barked, but, if displeased, uttered a low wolfish growl, and

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was a very powerful dog. Peter was brought to this country
by Lieut. Henderson, one of the companions of Captain
Ross, in his first voyage, and lived long at the Regent's
Park. He was very good tempered and familiar. The
Hare-Indian dogs, it is said, are never known to bark
in their own country, and it is worthy of note that
those which were brought from thence to the Regent's
Park never barked at all, but the younger one which
was born here barked like the other dogs. It is curious
'to observe these steps. 'The period,' says Mr. Bell,

at which the domestication of the dog first took place
is wholly lost in the mist of antiquity. The earliest
mention of it in the sacred Scripture occurs during the
sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt.-"But against Israel
shall not a dog move his tongue.' It is again mentioned

in the Mosaic law in a manner which would seem to
show that they were the common scavengers of the Israel-
itish camp, as they are still in many of the cities of the
East:-"Neither shall ye eat any
flesh that is torn of beasts
in the field: ye shall cast it to the dogs." A similar office
seems to be repeatedly alluded to in the course of the
Jewish history:"Him that dieth in the city shall the
dogs eat, and him that dieth in the fields shall the fowls of
the air eat a common curse, as it would appear, as it
occurs verbatim on no less than three separate occasions in
the First Book of Kings; and evidently intimates a violent
and disgraceful death, without the honour of sepulture.
The dog was considered by the Jews as eminently an un-
clean animal, and was the figure selected for the most con-
temptuous insults. It is impossible not to be struck with
the striking similarity which exists in the feelings of many
oriental nations at the present day, among whom the very
phraseology of the Scriptures is, with little modification,
applied to a similar purpose.

Before we proceed to give a sketch- and our limits will
allow us to give no more-of the varieties of the dog as fos-
tered by man, we must say another word as to its origin.
The student should be on his guard against being led to a
conclusion as to that origin by any particular developments
of parts. No animal seems to be more susceptible of modi-
fication than the dog, and man has succeeded in producing
almost every degree of change in the form of its cranium,
its stature, its aspect, and its fur. With regard to the latter
it is, in some varieties, almost entirely absent, and we have
scen, on the other hand, good close wool from a curious
variety of the poodle.

One circumstance should be borne in mind throughout an inquiry into the origin of the dog. None of the wild dogs, however, apparently living in a state of nature, have ever been found to return to the true form of wolf.

The shepherd's dog, a variety which was most probably one of the first that civilized and settled man called in aid to preserve his flocks from beasts and birds of prey and the depredations of roving human tribes, is remarkable for the capacity of its cranium and its great sagacity.

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which comprise the most useful and intelligent dogs. In the bull-dogs and mastiffs, dogues de forte race, of the French, though the head is one-third larger than those of the shepherd's dog and of the spaniels, Barbets,' the cranial capacity is not by any means so great.

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Skull of Shepherd's Dog, Chien de Berger; from F. Cuvier.

Skull of Dogue de forte race; from F. Cuvier.

Dr. Caius, the physician of queen Elizabeth's time, wrote several papers on Natural History for the use of Gesner, his correspondent and friend. In one of these treatises he divides the British dogs into-1st. The most generous kinds, which he subdivides into the dogs of chace, including the Hounds, viz., the Terrier, Harrier, and Bloodhound; and the Gazehound, Greyhound, Leviner, or Lyemmer, and Tumbler:-The Fowlers, viz. the Spaniel, Setter, Waterspaniel, or Finder:-and the Lap Dogs, viz. the Spaniel Gentle, or Comforter. 2nd. The Farm-Dogs, viz. the

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